Aristotle

W. D. Ross (ed.), Aristotle: De Anima

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412aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 3Τὰ μὲν δὴ ὑπὸ τῶν πρότερον παραδεδομένα περὶ ψυ‎-

Critical Apparatus Link 4χῆς εἰρήσθω· πάλιν δ' ὥσπερ ἐξ ὑπαρχῆς ἐπανίωμεν, πει‎-

Critical Apparatus Link 5ρώμενοι διορίσαι τί ἐστι ψυχὴ καὶ τίς ἂν εἴη κοινότατος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 6λόγος αὐτῆς. λέγομεν δὴ γένος ἕν τι τῶν ὄντων τὴν οὐσίαν‎,

pg 88Critical Apparatus Link 7ταύτης δὲ τὸ μέν, ὡς ὕλην, ὃ καθ' αὑτὸ οὐκ ἔστι τόδε‎

Critical Apparatus8τι, ἕτερον δὲ μορφὴν καὶ εἶδος, καθ' ἣν ἤδη λέγεται τόδε‎

Critical Apparatus Link 9τι, καὶ τρίτον τὸ ἐκ τούτων. ἔστι δ' ἡ μὲν ὕλη δύναμις, τὸ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 10δ' εἶδος ἐντελέχεια, καὶ τοῦτο διχῶς, τὸ μὲν ὡς ἐπιστήμη‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus11τὸ δ' ὡς τὸ θεωρεῖν‎.

11                                οὐσίαι δὲ μάλιστ' εἶναι δοκοῦσι τὰ σώ‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus12ματα, καὶ τούτων τὰ φυσικά· ταῦτα γὰρ τῶν ἄλλων ἀρ‎-

Editor’s Note13χαί. τῶν δὲ φυσικῶν τὰ μὲν ἔχει ζωήν, τὰ δ' οὐκ ἔχει·‎

Critical Apparatus Link 14ζωὴν δὲ λέγομεν τὴν δι' αὑτοῦ τροφήν τε καὶ αὔξησιν καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 15φθίσιν. ὥστε πᾶν σῶμα φυσικὸν μετέχον ζωῆς οὐσία ἂν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus16εἴη, οὐσία δ' οὕτως ὡς συνθέτη. ἐπεὶ δ' ἐστὶ καὶ σῶμα καὶ τοι‎-

Critical Apparatus17όνδε, ζωὴν γὰρ ἔχον, οὐκ ἄν εἴη σῶμα ἡ ψυχή· οὐ‎

18γάρ ἐστι τῶν καθ' ὑποκειμένου τὸ σῶμα, μᾶλλον δ' ὡς‎

Editor’s Note Link 19ὑποκείμενον καὶ ὕλη. ἀναγκαῖον ἄρα τὴν ψυχὴν οὐσίαν‎

Link 20εἶναι ὡς εἶδος σώματος φυσικοῦ δυνάμει ζωὴν ἔχον‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 21τος. ἡ δ' οὐσία ἐντελέχεια· τοιούτου ἄρα σώματος ἐν‎-

Editor’s Note Link 22τελέχεια. αὕτη δὲ λέγεται διχῶς, ἡ μὲν ὡς ἐπιστήμη‎,

23ἡ δ' ὡς τὸ θεωρεῖν. φανερὸν οὖν ὅτι ὡς ἐπιστήμη· ἐν γὰρ‎

Critical Apparatus24τῷ ὑπάρχειν τὴν ψυχὴν καὶ ὕπνος καὶ ἐγρήγορσίς ἐστιν‎,

25ἀνάλογον δ' ἡ μὲν ἐγρήγορσις τῷ θεωρεῖν, ὁ δ' ὕπνος τῷ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 26ἔχειν καὶ μὴ ἐνεργεῖν· προτέρα δὲ τῇ γενέσει ἐπὶ τοῦ αὐτοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 27ἡ ἐπιστήμη. διὸ ἡ ψυχή ἐστιν ἐντελέχεια ἡ πρώτη σώματος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus28φυσικοῦ δυνάμει ζωὴν ἔχοντος. τοιοῦτον δὲ ὃ ἂν ᾖ ὀργανι‎-

412bEditor’s Note Link 1κόν. (ὄργανα δὲ καὶ τὰ τῶν φυτῶν μέρη, ἀλλὰ παντελῶς‎

2ἁπλᾶ, οἷον τὸ φύλλον περικαρπίου σκέπασμα, τὸ δὲ περι‎-

Critical Apparatus3κάρπιον καρποῦ· αἱ δὲ ῥίζαι τῷ στόματι ἀνάλογον· ἄμφω‎

pg 89Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 4γὰρ ἕλκει τὴν τροφήν.) εἰ δή τι κοινὸν ἐπὶ πάσης ψυχῆς‎

Critical Apparatus Link 5δεῖ λέγειν, εἴη ἂν ἐντελέχεια ἡ πρώτη σώματος φυσικοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus6ὀργανικοῦ. διὸ καὶ οὐ δεῖ ζητεῖν εἰ ἓν ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ τὸ σῶμα‎,

7ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸν κηρὸν καὶ τὸ σχῆμα, οὐδ' ὅλως τὴν ἑκάστου‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus8ὕλην καὶ τὸ οὗ ἡ ὕλη· τὸ γὰρ ἓν καὶ τὸ εἶναι ἐπεὶ πλεονα‎-

Critical Apparatus9χῶς λέγεται, τὸ κυρίως ἡ ἐντελέχειά ἐστιν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 10καθόλου μὲν οὖν εἴρηται τί ἐστιν ἡ ψυχή· οὐσία γὰρ ἡ κατὰ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11τὸν λόγον. τοῦτο δὲ τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι τῷ τοιῳδὶ σώματι, καθάπερ‎

Critical Apparatus12εἴ τι τῶν ὀργάνων φυσικὸν ἦν σῶμα, οἷον πέλεκυς· ἦν μὲν γὰρ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 13ἂν τὸ πελέκει εἶναι ἡ οὐσία αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἡ ψυχὴ τοῦτο· χωρι‎-

Critical Apparatus14σθείσης δὲ ταύτης οὐκ ἂν ἔτι πέλεκυς ἦν, ἀλλ' ἢ ὁμ‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 15ωνύμως, νῦν δ' ἔστι πέλεκυς. οὐ γὰρ τοιούτου σώματος τὸ τί‎

Critical Apparatus Link 16ἦν εἶναι καὶ ὁ λόγος ἡ ψυχή, ἀλλὰ φυσικοῦ τοιουδί, ἔχον‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17τος ἀρχὴν κινήσεως καὶ στάσεως ἐν ἑαυτῷ. θεωρεῖν δὲ καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus18ἐπὶ τῶν μερῶν δεῖ τὸ λεχθέν. εἰ γὰρ ἦν ὁ ὀφθαλμὸς ζῷον‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 19ψυχὴ ἂν ἦν αὐτοῦ ἡ ὄψις· αὕτη γὰρ οὐσία ὀφθαλμοῦ ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 20κατὰ τὸν λόγον (ὁ δ' ὀφθαλμὸς ὕλη ὄψεως), ἧς ἀπολει‎-

Critical Apparatus21πούσης οὐκέτ' ὀφθαλμός, πλὴν ὁμωνύμως, καθάπερ ὁ λί‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22θινος καὶ ὁ γεγραμμένος. δεῖ δὴ λαβεῖν τὸ ἐπὶ μέρους ἐφ'‎

Link 23ὅλου τοῦ ζῶντος σώματος· ἀνάλογον γὰρ ἔχει ὡς τὸ μέ‎-

Critical Apparatus24ρος πρὸς τὸ μέρος, οὕτως ἡ ὅλη αἴσθησις πρὸς τὸ ὅλον‎

Link 25σῶμα τὸ αἰσθητικόν, ᾗ τοιοῦτον. ἔστι δὲ οὐ τὸ ἀποβεβληκὸς‎

Editor’s Note Link 26τὴν ψυχὴν τὸ δυνάμει ὂν ὥστε ζῆν, ἀλλὰ τὸ ἔχον· τὸ δὲ‎

Editor’s Note Link 27σπέρμα καὶ ὁ καρπὸς τὸ δυνάμει τοιονδὶ σῶμα. ὡς μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 28οὖν ἡ τμῆσις καὶ ἡ ὅρασις, οὕτω καὶ ἡ ἐγρήγορσις ἐντελέ‎-

pg 90413aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus1χεια, ὡς δ' ἡ ὄψις καὶ ἡ δύναμις τοῦ ὀργάνου, ἡ ψυχή·‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 2τὸ δὲ σῶμα τὸ δυνάμει ὄν· ἀλλ' ὥσπερ ὀφθαλμὸς ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 3κόρη καὶ ἡ ὄψις, κἀκεῖ ἡ ψυχὴ καὶ τὸ σῶμα ζῷον. ὅτι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 4μὲν οὖν οὐκ ἔστιν ἡ ψυχὴ χωριστὴ τοῦ σώματος, ἢ μέρη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus5τινὰ αὐτῆς, εἰ μεριστὴ πέφυκεν, οὐκ ἄδηλον· ἐνίων γὰρ ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus6ἐντελέχεια τῶν μερῶν ἐστὶν αὐτῶν. οὐ μὴν ἀλλ' ἔνιά γε‎

Critical Apparatus7οὐθὲν κωλύει, διὰ τὸ μηθενὸς εἶναι σώματος ἐντελεχείας‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 8ἔτι δὲ ἄδηλον εἰ οὕτως ἐντελέχεια τοῦ σώματος ἡ ψυχὴ ⟨ἢ⟩‎

Critical Apparatus9ὥσπερ πλωτὴρ πλοίου. τύπῳ μὲν οὖν ταύτῃ διωρίσθω καὶ‎

10ὑπογεγράφθω περὶ ψυχῆς‎.

2 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 11Ἐπεὶ δ' ἐκ τῶν ἀσαφῶν μὲν φανερωτέρων δὲ γίνεται‎

Critical Apparatus12τὸ σαφὲς καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον γνωριμώτερον, πειρατέον‎

Critical Apparatus Link 13πάλιν οὕτω γ' ἐπελθεῖν περὶ αὐτῆς· οὐ γὰρ μόνον τὸ ὅτι‎

Critical Apparatus14δεῖ τὸν ὁριστικὸν λόγον δηλοῦν, ὥσπερ οἱ πλεῖστοι τῶν ὅρων‎

15λέγουσιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὴν αἰτίαν ἐνυπάρχειν καὶ ἐμφαίνε‎-

Link 16σθαι. νῦν δ' ὥσπερ συμπεράσμαθ' οἱ λόγοι τῶν ὅρων εἰσίν·‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus17οἷον τί ἐστιν ὁ τετραγωνισμός; τὸ ἴσον ἑτερομήκει ὀρθογώνιον‎

Critical Apparatus18εἶναι ἰσόπλευρον. ὁ δὲ τοιοῦτος ὅρος λόγος τοῦ συμπεράσμα‎-

Critical Apparatus19τος· ὁ δὲ λέγων ὅτι ἐστὶν ὁ τετραγωνισμὸς μέσης εὕρεσις‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 20τοῦ πράγματος λέγει τὸ αἴτιον. λέγομεν οὖν, ἀρχὴν λαβόν‎-

Critical Apparatus21τες τῆς σκέψεως, διωρίσθαι τὸ ἔμψυχον τοῦ ἀψύχου τῷ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 22ζῆν. πλεοναχῶς δὲ τοῦ ζῆν λεγομένου, κἂν ἕν τι τούτων‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23ἐνυπάρχῃ μόνον, ζῆν αὐτό φαμεν, οἷον νοῦς, αἴσθησις, κί‎-

Editor’s Note Link 24νησις καὶ στάσις ἡ κατὰ τόπον, ἔτι κίνησις ἡ κατὰ τρο‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 25φὴν καὶ φθίσις τε καὶ αὔξησις. διὸ καὶ τὰ φυόμενα‎

pg 91Critical Apparatus Link 26πάντα δοκεῖ ζῆν· φαίνεται γὰρ ἐν αὑτοῖς ἔχοντα δύναμιν‎

27καὶ ἀρχὴν τοιαύτην, δι' ἧς αὔξησίν τε καὶ φθίσιν λαμ‎-

Critical Apparatus28βάνουσι κατὰ τοὺς ἐναντίους τόπους· οὐ γὰρ ἄνω μὲν αὔξε‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29ται, κάτω δ' οὔ, ἀλλ' ὁμοίως ἐπ' ἄμφω καὶ πάντῃ, ὅσα ἀεὶ‎

30τρέφεταί τε καὶ ζῇ διὰ τέλους, ἕως ἂν δύνηται λαμβάνειν‎

31τροφήν. χωρίζεσθαι δὲ τοῦτο μὲν τῶν ἄλλων δυνατόν, τὰ‎

Editor’s Note Link 32δ' ἄλλα τούτου ἀδύνατον ἐν τοῖς θνητοῖς. φανερὸν δ' ἐπὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 33τῶν φυομένων· οὐδεμία γὰρ αὐτοῖς ὑπάρχει δύναμις ἄλλη‎

413bEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 1ψυχῆς. τὸ μὲν οὖν ζῆν διὰ τὴν ἀρχὴν ταύτην ὑπάρχει τοῖς‎

Editor’s Note Link 2ζῶσι, τὸ δὲ ζῷον διὰ τὴν αἴσθησιν πρώτως· καὶ γὰρ τὰ‎

Critical Apparatus3μὴ κινούμενα μηδ' ἀλλάττοντα τόπον, ἔχοντα δ' αἴσθησιν‎,

Critical Apparatus4ζῷα λέγομεν καὶ οὐ ζῆν μόνον. αἰσθήσεως δὲ πρῶτον ὑπ‎-

Critical Apparatus5άρχει πᾶσιν ἁφή· ὥσπερ δὲ τὸ θρεπτικὸν δύναται χωρίζε‎-

6σθαι τῆς ἁφῆς καὶ πάσης αἰσθήσεως, οὕτως ἡ ἁφὴ τῶν‎

7ἄλλων αἰσθήσεων (θρεπτικὸν δὲ λέγομεν τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον‎

Critical Apparatus8τῆς ψυχῆς οὗ καὶ τὰ φυόμενα μετέχει), τὰ δὲ ζῷα πάντα‎

9φαίνεται τὴν ἁπτικὴν αἴσθησιν ἔχοντα· δι' ἣν δ' αἰτίαν‎

Editor’s Note10ἑκάτερον τούτων συμβέβηκεν, ὕστερον ἐροῦμεν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 11νῦν δ' ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον εἰρήσθω μόνον, ὅτι ἐστὶν ἡ ψυχὴ τῶν εἰ‎-

Critical Apparatus12ρημένων τούτων ἀρχὴ καὶ τούτοις ὥρισται, θρεπτικῷ, αἰσθητικῷ‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 13διανοητικῷ, κινήσει. πότερον δὲ τούτων ἕκαστόν ἐστι ψυχὴ ἢ‎

14μόριον ψυχῆς, καὶ εἰ μόριον, πότερον οὕτως ὥστ' εἶναι χωριστὸν‎

Critical Apparatus15λόγῳ μόνον ἢ καὶ τόπῳ, περὶ μὲν τινῶν τούτων οὐ χαλεπὸν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 16ἰδεῖν, ἔνια δὲ ἀπορίαν ἔχει. ὥσπερ γὰρ ἐπὶ τῶν φυτῶν ἔνια‎

Critical Apparatus17διαιρούμενα φαίνεται ζῶντα καὶ χωριζόμενα ἀπ' ἀλλήλων‎,

Critical Apparatus18ὡς οὔσης τῆς ἐν αὐτοῖς ψυχῆς ἐντελεχείᾳ μὲν μιᾶς ἐν ἑκάστῳ‎

Critical Apparatus19φυτῷ, δυνάμει δὲ πλειόνων, οὕτως ὁρῶμεν καὶ περὶ ἑτέρας‎

Critical Apparatus Link 20διαφορὰς τῆς ψυχῆς συμβαῖνον ἐπὶ τῶν ἐντόμων ἐν τοῖς‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21διατεμνομένοις· καὶ γὰρ αἴσθησιν ἑκάτερον τῶν μερῶν ἔχει‎

pg 92Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 22καὶ κίνησιν τὴν κατὰ τόπον, εἰ δ' αἴσθησιν, καὶ φαντασίαν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23καὶ ὄρεξιν· ὅπου μὲν γὰρ αἴσθησις, καὶ λύπη τε καὶ ἡδονή‎,

Editor’s Note Link 24ὅπου δὲ ταῦτα, ἐξ ἀνάγκης καὶ ἐπιθυμία. περὶ δὲ τοῦ νοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 25καὶ τῆς θεωρητικῆς δυνάμεως οὐδέν πω φανερόν, ἀλλ' ἔοικε‎

Critical Apparatus26ψυχῆς γένος ἕτερον εἶναι, καὶ τοῦτο μόνον ἐνδέχεσθαι χωρί‎-

Editor’s Note27ζεσθαι, καθάπερ τὸ ἀΐδιον τοῦ φθαρτοῦ. τὰ δὲ λοιπὰ μόρια‎

Editor’s Note28τῆς ψυχῆς φανερὸν ἐκ τούτων ὅτι οὐκ ἔστι χωριστά, καθάπερ‎

Link 29τινές φασιν· τῷ δὲ λόγῳ ὅτι ἕτερα, φανερόν· αἰσθητικῷ‎

30γὰρ εἶναι καὶ δοξαστικῷ ἕτερον, εἴπερ καὶ τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι‎

31τοῦ δοξάζειν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἕκαστον τῶν εἰρημέ‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus32νων. ἔτι δ' ἐνίοις μὲν τῶν ζῴων ἅπανθ' ὑπάρχει ταῦτα‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 33τισὶ δὲ τινὰ τούτων, ἑτέροις δὲ ἓν μόνον (τοῦτο δὲ ποιεῖ δια‎-

414aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 1φορὰν τῶν ζῴων)· διὰ τίνα δ' αἰτίαν, ὕστερον ἐπισκεπτέον‎.

Critical Apparatus2παραπλήσιον δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς αἰσθήσεις συμβέβηκεν· τὰ μὲν γὰρ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus3ἔχει πάσας, τὰ δὲ τινάς, τὰ δὲ μίαν τὴν ἀναγκαιοτάτην, ἁφήν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus4ἐπεὶ δὲ ᾧ ζῶμεν καὶ αἰσθανόμεθα διχῶς λέγεται‎,

Critical Apparatus5καθάπερ ᾧ ἐπιστάμεθα (λέγομεν δὲ τὸ μὲν ἐπιστήμην‎

6τὸ δὲ ψυχήν, ἑκατέρῳ γὰρ τούτων φαμὲν ἐπίστασθαι‎),

Critical Apparatus7ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ [ᾧ] ὑγιαίνομεν τὸ μὲν ὑγιείᾳ τὸ δὲ μορίῳ‎

8τινὶ τοῦ σώματος ἢ καὶ ὅλῳ, τούτων δ' ἡ μὲν ἐπιστήμη‎

Critical Apparatus9τε καὶ ὑγίεια μορφὴ καὶ εἶδός τι καὶ λόγος καὶ οἷον ἐνέρ‎-

Critical Apparatus10γεια τοῦ δεκτικοῦ, ἡ μὲν τοῦ ἐπιστημονικοῦ, ἡ δὲ τοῦ ὑγιαστοῦ‎

11(δοκεῖ γὰρ ἐν τῷ πάσχοντι καὶ διατιθεμένῳ ἡ τῶν ποιητι‎-

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus12κῶν ὑπάρχειν ἐνέργεια), ἡ ψυχὴ δὲ τοῦτο ᾧ ζῶμεν καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus13αἰσθανόμεθα καὶ διανοούμεθα πρώτως—ὥστε λόγος τις ἂν εἴη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 14καὶ εἶδος, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὕλη καὶ τὸ ὑποκείμενον. τριχῶς γὰρ‎

pg 93Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 15λεγομένης τῆς οὐσίας, καθάπερ εἴπομεν, ὧν τὸ μὲν εἶδος‎,

Critical Apparatus16τὸ δὲ ὕλη, τὸ δὲ ἐξ ἀμφοῖν, τούτων δ' ἡ μὲν ὕλη δύνα-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus17μις, τὸ δὲ εἶδος ἐντελέχεια, ἐπεὶ τὸ ἐξ ἀμφοῖν ἔμψυχον‎,

Link 18οὐ τὸ σῶμά ἐστιν ἐντελέχεια ψυχῆς, ἀλλ' αὕτη σώματός‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus19τινος. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο καλῶς ὑπολαμβάνουσιν οἷς δοκεῖ μήτ'‎

Critical Apparatus20ἄνευ σώματος εἶναι μήτε σῶμά τι ἡ ψυχή· σῶμα μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus21γὰρ οὐκ ἔστι, σώματος δέ τι, καὶ διὰ τοῦτο ἐν σώματι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22ὑπάρχει, καὶ ἐν σώματι τοιούτῳ, καὶ οὐχ ὥσπερ οἱ πρό-‎

Critical Apparatus23τερον εἰς σῶμα ἐνήρμοζον αὐτήν, οὐθὲν προσδιορίζοντες ἐν τίνι‎

Critical Apparatus24καὶ ποίῳ, καίπερ οὐδὲ φαινομένου τοῦ τυχόντος δέχεσθαι τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus25τυχόν. οὕτω δὲ γίνεται καὶ κατὰ λόγον· ἑκάστου γὰρ ἡ ἐν-‎

Critical Apparatus26τελέχεια ἐν τῷ δυνάμει ὑπάρχοντι καὶ τῇ οἰκείᾳ ὕλῃ πέ-‎

Critical Apparatus27φυκεν ἐγγίνεσθαι. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ἐντελέχειά τίς ἐστι καὶ λόγος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus28τοῦ δύναμιν ἔχοντος εἶναι τοιούτου, φανερὸν ἐκ τούτων‎.

3 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29Τῶν δὲ δυνάμεων τῆς ψυχῆς αἱ λεχθεῖσαι τοῖς μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus30ὑπάρχουσι πᾶσαι, καθάπερ εἴπομεν, τοῖς δὲ τινὲς αὐτῶν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 31ἐνίοις δὲ μία μόνη. δυνάμεις δ' εἴπομεν θρεπτικόν, αἰσθη-‎

Link 32τικόν, ὀρεκτικόν, κινητικὸν κατὰ τόπον, διανοητικόν. ὑπ-‎

33άρχει δὲ τοῖς μὲν φυτοῖς τὸ θρεπτικὸν μόνον, ἑτέροις δὲ‎

Link 414bCritical Apparatus Link 1τοῦτό τε καὶ τὸ αἰσθητικόν. εἰ δὲ τὸ αἰσθητικόν, καὶ τὸ ὀρε-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 2κτικόν· ὄρεξις μὲν γὰρ ἐπιθυμία καὶ θυμὸς καὶ βούλησις‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 3τὰ δὲ ζῷα πάντ' ἔχουσι μίαν γε τῶν αἰσθήσεων, τὴν ἁφήν·‎

Link 4ᾧ δ' αἴσθησις ὑπάρχει, τούτῳ ἡδονή τε καὶ λύπη καὶ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus5ἡδύ τε καὶ λυπηρόν, οἷς δὲ ταῦτα, καὶ ἐπιθυμία· τοῦ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6γὰρ ἡδέος ὄρεξις αὕτη. ἔτι δὲ τῆς τροφῆς αἴσθησιν ἔχουσιν·‎

Critical Apparatus7ἡ γὰρ ἁφὴ τῆς τροφῆς αἴσθησις· ξηροῖς γὰρ καὶ ὑγροῖς‎

pg 94Critical Apparatus8καὶ θερμοῖς καὶ ψυχροῖς τρέφεται τὰ ζῶντα πάντα, τούτων‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus9δ' αἴσθησις ἁφή, τῶν δ' ἄλλων αἰσθητῶν κατὰ συμβεβη-‎

Critical Apparatus10κός. οὐθὲν γὰρ εἰς τροφὴν συμβάλλεται ψόφος οὐδὲ χρῶμα‎

Critical Apparatus11οὐδὲ ὀσμή, ὁ δὲ χυμὸς ἕν τι τῶν ἁπτῶν ἐστιν. πεῖνα δὲ καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 12δίψα ἐπιθυμία, καὶ ἡ μὲν πεῖνα ξηροῦ καὶ θερμοῦ, ἡ δὲ‎

Critical Apparatus13δίψα ὑγροῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ· ὁ δὲ χυμὸς οἷον ἥδυσμά τι τούτων‎

Editor’s Note Link 14ἐστίν. διασαφητέον δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ὕστερον, νῦν δ' ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 15εἰρήσθω, ὅτι τῶν ζώντων τοῖς ἔχουσιν ἁφὴν καὶ ὄρεξις ὑπάρ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus16χει. περὶ δὲ φαντασίας ἄδηλον, ὕστερον δ' ἐπισκεπτέον. ἐνί-‎

17οις δὲ πρὸς τούτοις ὑπάρχει καὶ τὸ κατὰ τόπον κινητικόν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 18ἑτέροις δὲ καὶ τὸ διανοητικόν τε καὶ νοῦς, οἷον ἀνθρώποις καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19εἴ τι τοιοῦτον ἕτερον ἔστιν ἢ τιμιώτερον‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 20δῆλον οὖν ὅτι τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον εἷς ἂν εἴη λόγος ψυχῆς τε καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus21σχήματος· οὔτε γὰρ ἐκεῖ σχῆμα παρὰ τὸ τρίγωνον ἔστι καὶ τὰ‎

Critical Apparatus22ἐφεξῆς, οὔτ' ἐνταῦθα ψυχὴ παρὰ τὰς εἰρημένας. γένοιτο δ' ἂν‎

Critical Apparatus23καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν σχημάτων λόγος κοινός, ὃς ἐφαρμόσει μὲν πᾶσιν‎,

Critical Apparatus24ἴδιος δ' οὐδενὸς ἔσται σχήματος. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ ταῖς εἰ-‎

Editor’s Note Link 25ρημέναις ψυχαῖς. διὸ γελοῖον ζητεῖν τὸν κοινὸν λόγον καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus26ἐπὶ τούτων καὶ ἐφ' ἑτέρων, ὃς οὐδενὸς ἔσται τῶν ὄντων ἴδιος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus27λόγος, οὐδὲ κατὰ τὸ οἰκεῖον καὶ ἄτομον εἶδος, ἀφέντας τὸν‎

Critical Apparatus28τοιοῦτον. (παραπλησίως δ' ἔχει τῷ περὶ τῶν σχημάτων καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 29τὰ κατὰ ψυχήν· ἀεὶ γὰρ ἐν τῷ ἐφεξῆς ὑπάρχει δυνάμει‎

Critical Apparatus30τὸ πρότερον ἐπί τε τῶν σχημάτων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐμψύχων‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31οἷον ἐν τετραγώνῳ μὲν τρίγωνον, ἐν αἰσθητικῷ δὲ τὸ θρεπτι-‎

pg 95Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus32κόν.) ὥστε καθ' ἕκαστον ζητητέον, τίς ἑκάστου ψυχή, οἷον τίς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 33φυτοῦ καὶ τίς ἀνθρώπου ἢ θηρίου. διὰ τίνα δ' αἰτίαν τῷ ἐφ-‎

415a1εξῆς οὕτως ἔχουσι, σκεπτέον. ἄνευ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ θρεπτικοῦ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus2αἰσθητικὸν οὐκ ἔστιν· τοῦ δ' αἰσθητικοῦ χωρίζεται τὸ θρεπτικὸν‎

3ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς. πάλιν δ' ἄνευ μὲν τοῦ ἁπτικοῦ τῶν ἄλ-‎

4λων αἰσθήσεων οὐδεμία ὑπάρχει, ἁφὴ δ' ἄνευ τῶν ἄλλων‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus5ὑπάρχει· πολλὰ γὰρ τῶν ζῴων οὔτ' ὄψιν οὔτ' ἀκοὴν ἔχου-‎

Critical Apparatus6σιν οὔτ' ὀσμῆς αἴσθησιν. καὶ τῶν αἰσθητικῶν δὲ τὰ μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus7ἔχει τὸ κατὰ τόπον κινητικόν, τὰ δ' οὐκ ἔχει· τελευταῖον‎

Critical Apparatus Link 8δὲ καὶ ἐλάχιστα λογισμὸν καὶ διάνοιαν· οἷς μὲν γὰρ ὑπ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 9άρχει λογισμὸς τῶν φθαρτῶν, τούτοις καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ πάντα‎,

Editor’s Note Link 10οἷς δ' ἐκείνων ἕκαστον, οὐ πᾶσι λογισμός, ἀλλὰ τοῖς μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 11οὐδὲ φαντασία, τὰ δὲ ταύτῃ μόνῃ ζῶσιν. περὶ δὲ τοῦ θεωρη-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus12τικοῦ νοῦ ἕτερος λόγος. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ὁ περὶ τούτων ἑκάστου‎

13λόγος, οὗτος οἰκειότατος καὶ περὶ ψυχῆς, δῆλον‎.

4 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 14Ἀναγκαῖον δὲ τὸν μέλλοντα περὶ τούτων σκέψιν ποιεῖσθαι‎

Critical Apparatus15λαβεῖν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν τί ἐστιν, εἶθ' οὕτως περὶ τῶν ἐχομένων‎

Critical Apparatus Link 16καὶ περὶ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπιζητεῖν. εἰ δὲ χρὴ λέγειν τί ἕκαστον‎

Critical Apparatus Link 17αὐτῶν, οἷον τί τὸ νοητικὸν ἢ τὸ αἰσθητικὸν ἢ τὸ θρεπτικόν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 18πρότερον ἔτι λεκτέον τί τὸ νοεῖν καὶ τί τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι· πρό-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus19τεραι γάρ εἰσι τῶν δυνάμεων αἱ ἐνέργειαι καὶ αἱ πράξεις κατὰ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus20τὸν λόγον. εἰ δ' οὕτως, τούτων δ' ἔτι πρότερα τὰ ἀντικείμενα‎

Critical Apparatus21δεῖ τεθεωρηκέναι, περὶ ἐκείνων πρῶτον ἂν δέοι διορίσαι διὰ τὴν‎

pg 96Editor’s Note Link 22αὐτὴν αἰτίαν, οἷον περὶ τροφῆς καὶ αἰσθητοῦ καὶ νοητοῦ. ὥστε‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23πρῶτον περὶ τροφῆς καὶ γεννήσεως λεκτέον· ἡ γὰρ θρεπτικὴ‎

Critical Apparatus24ψυχὴ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὑπάρχει, καὶ πρώτη καὶ κοινοτάτη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 25δύναμίς ἐστι ψυχῆς, καθ' ἣν ὑπάρχει τὸ ζῆν ἅπασιν. ἧς ἐστὶν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 26ἔργα γεννῆσαι καὶ τροφῇ χρῆσθαι· φυσικώτατον γὰρ τῶν ἔρ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 27γων τοῖς ζῶσιν, ὅσα τέλεια καὶ μὴ πηρώματα ἢ τὴν γένεσιν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 28αὐτομάτην ἔχει, τὸ ποιῆσαι ἕτερον οἷον αὐτό, ζῷον μὲν ζῷον‎,

Critical Apparatus29φυτὸν δὲ φυτόν, ἵνα τοῦ ἀεὶ καὶ τοῦ θείου μετέχωσιν ᾗ δύναν-‎

415bEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 1ται· πάντα γὰρ ἐκείνου ὀρέγεται, καὶ ἐκείνου ἕνεκα πράττει‎

Critical Apparatus Link 2ὅσα πράττει κατὰ φύσιν (τὸ δ' οὗ ἕνεκα διττόν, τὸ μὲν οὗ, τὸ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus3δὲ ᾧ). ἐπεὶ οὖν κοινωνεῖν ἀδυνατεῖ τοῦ ἀεὶ καὶ τοῦ θείου τῇ συν-‎

Critical Apparatus4εχείᾳ, διὰ τὸ μηδὲν ἐνδέχεσθαι τῶν φθαρτῶν ταὐτὸ καὶ ἓν‎

Critical Apparatus5ἀριθμῷ διαμένειν, ᾗ δύναται μετέχειν ἕκαστον, κοινωνεῖ‎

6ταύτῃ, τὸ μὲν μᾶλλον τὸ δ' ἧττον, καὶ διαμένει οὐκ αὐτὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 7ἀλλ' οἷον αὐτό, ἀριθμῷ μὲν οὐχ ἕν, εἴδει δ' ἕν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 8ἔστι δὲ ἡ ψυχὴ τοῦ ζῶντος σώματος αἰτία καὶ ἀρχή. ταῦτα‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus9δὲ πολλαχῶς λέγεται, ὁμοίως δ' ἡ ψυχὴ κατὰ τοὺς διωρισμέ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus10νους τρόπους τρεῖς αἰτία· καὶ γὰρ ὅθεν ἡ κίνησις καὶ οὗ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11ἕνεκα καὶ ὡς ἡ οὐσία τῶν ἐμψύχων σωμάτων ἡ ψυχὴ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 12αἰτία. ὅτι μὲν οὖν ὡς οὐσία, δῆλον· τὸ γὰρ αἴτιον τοῦ εἶναι‎

Critical Apparatus Link 13πᾶσιν ἡ οὐσία, τὸ δὲ ζῆν τοῖς ζῶσι τὸ εἶναί ἐστιν, αἰτία δὲ‎

pg 97Critical Apparatus Link 14καὶ ἀρχὴ τούτου ἡ ψυχή. ἔτι τοῦ δυνάμει ὄντος λόγος ἡ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 15ἐντελέχεια. φανερὸν δ' ὡς καὶ οὗ ἕνεκεν ἡ ψυχὴ αἰτία·‎

Critical Apparatus16ὥσπερ γὰρ ὁ νοῦς ἕνεκά του ποιεῖ, τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον καὶ ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus17φύσις, καὶ τοῦτ' ἔστιν αὐτῆς τέλος. τοιοῦτον δ' ἐν τοῖς ζῴοις‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 18ἡ ψυχὴ κατὰ φύσιν· πάντα γὰρ τὰ φυσικὰ σώματα τῆς‎

Critical Apparatus19ψυχῆς ὄργανα, καθάπερ τὰ τῶν ζῴων, οὕτω καὶ τὰ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 20τῶν φυτῶν, ὡς ἕνεκα τῆς ψυχῆς ὄντα· διττῶς δὲ τὸ οὗ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 21ἕνεκα, τό τε οὗ καὶ τὸ ᾧ. ἀλλὰ μὴν καὶ ὅθεν πρῶτον ἡ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22κατὰ τόπον κίνησις, ψυχή· οὐ πᾶσι δ' ὑπάρχει τοῖς ζῶσιν‎

Critical Apparatus23ἡ δύναμις αὕτη. ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἀλλοίωσις καὶ αὔξησις κατὰ‎

Link 24ψυχήν· ἡ μὲν γὰρ αἴσθησις ἀλλοίωσίς τις εἶναι δοκεῖ, αἰ-‎

Critical Apparatus25σθάνεται δ' οὐθὲν ὃ μὴ μετέχει ψυχῆς, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ περὶ αὐ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 26ξήσεώς τε καὶ φθίσεως ἔχει· οὐδὲν γὰρ φθίνει οὐδ' αὔξεται‎

Critical Apparatus27φυσικῶς μὴ τρεφόμενον, τρέφεται δ' οὐθὲν ὃ μὴ κοινωνεῖ ζωῆς‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 28                 Ἐμπεδοκλῆς δ' οὐ καλῶς εἴρηκε τοῦτο προστιθείς, τὴν‎

Critical Apparatus29αὔξησιν συμβαίνειν τοῖς φυτοῖς κάτω μὲν συρριζουμένοις διὰ‎

416aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus1τὸ τὴν γῆν οὕτω φέρεσθαι κατὰ φύσιν, ἄνω δὲ διὰ τὸ ⟨τὸ⟩‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus2πῦρ ὡσαύτως. οὔτε γὰρ τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω καλῶς λαμβά-‎

Critical Apparatus3νει (οὐ γὰρ ταὐτὸ πᾶσι τὸ ἄνω καὶ κάτω καὶ τῷ παντί‎,

4ἀλλ' ὡς ἡ κεφαλὴ τῶν ζῴων, οὕτως αἱ ῥίζαι τῶν φυτῶν‎,

Critical Apparatus5εἰ χρὴ τὰ ὄργανα λέγειν ἕτερα καὶ ταὐτὰ τοῖς ἔργοις‎)

Critical Apparatus6πρὸς δὲ τούτοις τί τὸ συνέχον εἰς τἀναντία φερόμενα τὸ πῦρ‎

Critical Apparatus7καὶ τὴν γῆν; διασπασθήσεται γάρ, εἰ μή τι ἔσται τὸ κω-‎

Critical Apparatus8λύον· εἰ δ' ἔσται, τοῦτ' ἔστιν ἡ ψυχή, καὶ τὸ αἴτιον τοῦ αὐ-‎

pg 98Editor’s Note Link 9ξάνεσθαι καὶ τρέφεσθαι. δοκεῖ δέ τισιν ἡ τοῦ πυρὸς φύσις‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus10ἁπλῶς αἰτία τῆς τροφῆς καὶ τῆς αὐξήσεως εἶναι· καὶ γὰρ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus11αὐτὸ φαίνεται μόνον τῶν σωμάτων [ἢ τῶν στοιχείων] τρεφό-‎

Critical Apparatus12μενον καὶ αὐξόμενον, διὸ καὶ ἐν τοῖς φυτοῖς καὶ ἐν τοῖς‎

13ζῴοις ὑπολάβοι τις ἂν τοῦτο εἶναι τὸ ἐργαζόμενον. τὸ δὲ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 14συναίτιον μέν πώς ἐστιν, οὐ μὴν ἁπλῶς γε αἴτιον, ἀλλὰ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 15μᾶλλον ἡ ψυχή· ἡ μὲν γὰρ τοῦ πυρὸς αὔξησις εἰς ἄπει-‎

Critical Apparatus16ρον, ἕως ἂν ᾖ τὸ καυστόν, τῶν δὲ φύσει συνισταμένων πάν-‎

Critical Apparatus17των ἔστι πέρας καὶ λόγος μεγέθους τε καὶ αὐξήσεως· ταῦτα‎

Critical Apparatus18δὲ ψυχῆς, ἀλλ' οὐ πυρός, καὶ λόγου μᾶλλον ἢ ὕλης‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 19ἐπεὶ δ' ἡ αὐτὴ δύναμις τῆς ψυχῆς θρεπτικὴ καὶ γεννητική‎,

Critical Apparatus20περὶ τροφῆς ἀναγκαῖον διωρίσθαι πρῶτον· ἀφορίζεται γὰρ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21πρὸς τὰς ἄλλας δυνάμεις τῷ ἔργῳ τούτῳ. δοκεῖ δ' εἶναι ἡ‎

22τροφὴ τὸ ἐναντίον τῷ ἐναντίῳ, οὐ πᾶν δὲ παντί, ἀλλ' ὅσα τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus23ἐναντίων μὴ μόνον γένεσιν ἐξ ἀλλήλων ἔχουσιν ἀλλὰ καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 24αὔξησιν· γίνεται γὰρ πολλὰ ἐξ ἀλλήλων, ἀλλ' οὐ πάντα‎

Editor’s Note25ποσά, οἷον ὑγιὲς ἐκ κάμνοντος. φαίνεται δ' οὐδ' ἐκεῖνα τὸν‎

Critical Apparatus26αὐτὸν τρόπον ἀλλήλοις εἶναι τροφή, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν ὕδωρ‎

Editor’s Note27τῷ πυρὶ τροφή, τὸ δὲ πῦρ οὐ τρέφει τὸ ὕδωρ. ἐν μὲν οὖν‎

Critical Apparatus28τοῖς ἁπλοῖς σώμασι ταῦτ' εἶναι δοκεῖ μάλιστα τὸ μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29τροφὴ τὸ δὲ τρεφόμενον. ἀπορίαν δ' ἔχει· φασὶ γὰρ οἱ‎

Link 30μὲν τὸ ὅμοιον τῷ ὁμοίῳ τρέφεσθαι, καθάπερ καὶ αὐξά-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 31νεσθαι, τοῖς δ' ὥσπερ εἴπομεν τοὔμπαλιν δοκεῖ, τὸ ἐναντίον‎

Critical Apparatus32τῷ ἐναντίῳ, ὡς ἀπαθοῦς ὄντος τοῦ ὁμοίου ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁμοίου‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus33τὴν δὲ τροφὴν δεῖν μεταβάλλειν καὶ πέττεσθαι· ἡ δὲ μετα-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 34βολὴ πᾶσιν εἰς τὸ ἀντικείμενον ἢ τὸ μεταξύ. ἔτι πάσχει‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus35τι ἡ τροφὴ ὑπὸ τοῦ τρεφομένου, ἀλλ' οὐ τοῦτο ὑπὸ τῆς‎

416b1τροφῆς, ὥσπερ οὐδ' ὁ τέκτων ὑπὸ τῆς ὕλης, ἀλλ' ὑπ' ἐκεί-‎

pg 99 Link 2νου αὕτη· ὁ δὲ τέκτων μεταβάλλει μόνον εἰς ἐνέργειαν ἐξ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 3ἀργίας. πότερον δ' ἐστὶν ἡ τροφὴ τὸ τελευταῖον προσγινό-‎

Critical Apparatus4μενον ἢ τὸ πρῶτον, ἔχει διαφοράν. εἰ δ' ἄμφω, ἀλλ' ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus5μὲν ἄπεπτος ἡ δὲ πεπεμμένη, ἀμφοτέρως ἂν ἐνδέχοιτο τὴν‎

Critical Apparatus6τροφὴν λέγειν· ᾗ μὲν γὰρ ἄπεπτος, τὸ ἐναντίον τῷ ἐν-‎

7αντίῳ τρέφεται, ᾗ δὲ πεπεμμένη, τὸ ὅμοιον τῷ ὁμοίῳ. ὥστε‎

8φανερὸν ὅτι λέγουσί τινα τρόπον ἀμφότεροι καὶ ὀρθῶς καὶ‎

Editor’s Note9οὐκ ὀρθῶς‎.

9                      ἐπεὶ δ' οὐθὲν τρέφεται μὴ μετέχον ζωῆς, τὸ ἔμ-‎

10ψυχον ἂν εἴη σῶμα τὸ τρεφόμενον, ᾗ ἔμψυχον, ὥστε καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11ἡ τροφὴ πρὸς ἔμψυχόν ἐστι, καὶ οὐ κατὰ συμβεβηκός. ἔστι‎

12δ' ἕτερον τροφῇ καὶ αὐξητικῷ εἶναι· ᾗ μὲν γὰρ ποσόν τι‎

Link 13τὸ ἔμψυχον, αὐξητικόν, ᾗ δὲ τόδε τι καὶ οὐσία, τροφή‎

Link 14(σώζει γὰρ τὴν οὐσίαν, καὶ μέχρι τούτου ἔστιν ἕως ἂν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 15τρέφηται), καὶ γενέσεως ποιητικόν, οὐ τοῦ τρεφομένου, ἀλλ'‎

Critical Apparatus Link 16οἷον τὸ τρεφόμενον· ἤδη γὰρ ἔστιν αὐτοῦ ἡ οὐσία, γεννᾷ δ'‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17οὐθὲν αὐτὸ ἑαυτό, ἀλλὰ σώζει. ὥσθ' ἡ μὲν τοιαύτη τῆς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus18ψυχῆς ἀρχὴ δύναμίς ἐστιν οἵα σώζειν τὸ ἔχον αὐτὴν ᾗ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19τοιοῦτον, ἡ δὲ τροφὴ παρασκευάζει ἐνεργεῖν· διὸ στερηθὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus20τροφῆς οὐ δύναται εἶναι. [ἐπεὶ δ' ἔστι τρία, τὸ τρεφόμενον‎

21καὶ ᾧ τρέφεται καὶ τὸ τρέφον, τὸ μὲν τρέφον ἐστὶν ἡ‎

22πρώτη ψυχή, τὸ δὲ τρεφόμενον τὸ ἔχον ταύτην σῶμα, ᾧ‎

Editor’s Note Link 23δὲ τρέφεται, ἡ τροφή.] ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ τέλους ἅπαντα‎

Editor’s Note Link 24προσαγορεύειν δίκαιον, τέλος δὲ τὸ γεννῆσαι οἷον αὐτό‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 25εἴη ἂν ἡ πρώτη ψυχὴ γεννητικὴ οἷον αὐτό‎. ⟨ἐπεὶ δ' ἔστι τρία‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus25aτὸ τρεϕόμενον καὶ ᾧ τρέϕεται καὶ τὸ τρέϕον, τὸ μὲν‎

25bτρέϕον ἐστὶν ἡ πρώτη ψυχή, τὸ δὲ τρεϕόμενον τὸ ἔχον ταύτην‎

Critical Apparatus25cσῶμα, ᾧ δὲ τρέϕεται, ἡ τροϕή.⟩ ἔστι δὲ ᾧ τρέ-‎

Critical Apparatus26φει διττόν, ὥσπερ καὶ ᾧ κυβερνᾷ καὶ ἡ χεὶρ καὶ τὸ πηδά-‎

pg 100Critical Apparatus27λιον, τὸ μὲν κινοῦν καὶ κινούμενον, τὸ δὲ κινούμενον μόνον‎.

Critical Apparatus Link 28πᾶσαν δ' ἀναγκαῖον τροφὴν δύνασθαι πέττεσθαι, ἐργάζεται‎

Critical Apparatus Link 29δὲ τὴν πέψιν τὸ θερμόν· διὸ πᾶν ἔμψυχον ἔχει θερμότητα‎.

Critical Apparatus30τύπῳ μὲν οὖν ἡ τροφὴ τί ἐστιν εἴρηται· διασαφητέον δ'‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 31ἐστὶν ὕστερον περὶ αὐτῆς ἐν τοῖς οἰκείοις λόγοις‎.

5 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 32Διωρισμένων δὲ τούτων λέγωμεν κοινῇ περὶ πάσης αἰ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 33σθήσεως. ἡ δ' αἴσθησις ἐν τῷ κινεῖσθαί τε καὶ πάσχειν‎

Editor’s Note Link 34συμβαίνει, καθάπερ εἴρηται· δοκεῖ γὰρ ἀλλοίωσίς τις εἶ-‎

Editor’s Note Link 35ναι. φασὶ δέ τινες καὶ τὸ ὅμοιον ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁμοίου πάσχειν‎.

417aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 1τοῦτο δὲ πῶς δυνατὸν ἢ ἀδύνατον, εἰρήκαμεν ἐν τοῖς καθόλου‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 2λόγοις περὶ τοῦ ποιεῖν καὶ πάσχειν. ἔχει δ' ἀπορίαν διὰ τί‎

Critical Apparatus Link 3καὶ τῶν αἰσθήσεων αὐτῶν οὐ γίνεται αἴσθησις, καὶ διὰ τί‎

Critical Apparatus4ἄνευ τῶν ἔξω οὐ ποιοῦσιν αἴσθησιν, ἐνόντος πυρὸς καὶ γῆς καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus5τῶν ἄλλων στοιχείων, ὧν ἐστιν ἡ αἴσθησις καθ' αὑτὰ ἢ τὰ‎

Critical Apparatus6συμβεβηκότα τούτοις. δῆλον οὖν ὅτι τὸ αἰσθητικὸν οὐκ ἔστιν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 7ἐνεργείᾳ, ἀλλὰ δυνάμει μόνον, διὸ οὐκ αἰσθάνεται, καθάπερ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus8καυστὸν οὐ καίεται αὐτὸ καθ' αὑτὸ ἄνευ τοῦ καυστικοῦ· ἔκαιε γὰρ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 9ἂν ἑαυτό, καὶ οὐθὲν ἐδεῖτο τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ πυρὸς ὄντος. ἐπειδὴ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 10δὲ τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι λέγομεν διχῶς (τό τε γὰρ δυνάμει ἀκοῦον‎

Critical Apparatus11καὶ ὁρῶν ἀκούειν καὶ ὁρᾶν λέγομεν, κἂν τύχῃ καθεῦδον, καὶ‎

12τὸ ἤδη ἐνεργοῦν), διχῶς ἂν λέγοιτο καὶ ἡ αἴσθησις, ἡ μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13ὡς δυνάμει, ἡ δὲ ὡς ἐνεργείᾳ. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ αἰσθητόν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus14τό τε δυνάμει ὂν καὶ τὸ ἐνεργείᾳ. πρῶτον μὲν οὖν ὡς‎

Critical Apparatus15τοῦ αὐτοῦ ὄντος τοῦ πάσχειν καὶ τοῦ κινεῖσθαι καὶ τοῦ ἐνεργεῖν‎

pg 101Critical Apparatus Link 16λέγωμεν· καὶ γὰρ ἔστιν ἡ κίνησις ἐνέργειά τις, ἀτελὴς μέν-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17τοι, καθάπερ ἐν ἑτέροις εἴρηται. πάντα δὲ πάσχει καὶ κινεῖται‎

Critical Apparatus Link 18ὑπὸ τοῦ ποιητικοῦ καὶ ἐνεργείᾳ ὄντος. διὸ ἔστι μὲν ὡς ὑπὸ τοῦ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 19ὁμοίου πάσχει, ἔστι δὲ ὡς ὑπὸ τοῦ ἀνομοίου, καθάπερ εἴπο-‎

Critical Apparatus20μεν· πάσχει μὲν γὰρ τὸ ἀνόμοιον, πεπονθὸς δ' ὅμοιόν ἐστιν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 21διαιρετέον δὲ καὶ περὶ δυνάμεως καὶ ἐντελεχείας· νῦν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 22γὰρ ἁπλῶς ἐλέγομεν περὶ αὐτῶν. ἔστι μὲν γὰρ οὕτως ἐπι-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23στῆμόν τι ὡς ἂν εἴποιμεν ἄνθρωπον ἐπιστήμονα ὅτι ὁ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 24ἄνθρωπος τῶν ἐπιστημόνων καὶ ἐχόντων ἐπιστήμην· ἔστι δ'‎

Critical Apparatus Link 25ὡς ἤδη λέγομεν ἐπιστήμονα τὸν ἔχοντα τὴν γραμματικήν·‎

Critical Apparatus26ἑκάτερος δὲ τούτων οὐ τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον δυνατός ἐστιν, ἀλλ'‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 27ὁ μὲν ὅτι τὸ γένος τοιοῦτον καὶ ἡ ὕλη, ὁ δ' ὅτι βουληθεὶς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 28δυνατὸς θεωρεῖν, ἂν μή τι κωλύσῃ τῶν ἔξωθεν· ὁ δ' ἤδη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29θεωρῶν, ἐντελεχείᾳ ὢν καὶ κυρίως ἐπιστάμενος τόδε τὸ Α‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus30ἀμφότεροι μὲν οὖν οἱ πρῶτοι, κατὰ δύναμιν ἐπιστήμονες‎

Critical Apparatus30a⟨ὄντες, ἐνεργείᾳ γίνονται ἐπιστήμονες,⟩‎

Critical Apparatus Link 31ἀλλ' ὁ μὲν διὰ μαθήσεως ἀλλοιωθεὶς καὶ πολλάκις ἐξ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus32ἐναντίας μεταβαλὼν ἕξεως, ὁ δ' ἐκ τοῦ ἔχειν τὴν ἀριθμητικὴν‎

417b1ἢ τὴν γραμματικήν, μὴ ἐνεργεῖν δέ, εἰς τὸ ἐνεργεῖν, ἄλλον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus2τρόπον‎.

2                        οὐκ ἔστι δ' ἁπλοῦν οὐδὲ τὸ πάσχειν, ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 3φθορά τις ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐναντίου, τὸ δὲ σωτηρία μᾶλλον ὑπὸ τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus4ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος τοῦ δυνάμει ὄντος καὶ ὁμοίου οὕτως ὡς δύ-‎

Link 5ναμις ἔχει πρὸς ἐντελέχειαν· θεωροῦν γὰρ γίνεται τὸ ἔχον‎

Critical Apparatus Link 6τὴν ἐπιστήμην, ὅπερ ἢ οὐκ ἔστιν ἀλλοιοῦσθαι (εἰς αὑτὸ γὰρ ἡ‎

pg 102Critical Apparatus7ἐπίδοσις καὶ εἰς ἐντελέχειαν) ἢ ἕτερον γένος ἀλλοιώσεως‎.

Link 8διὸ οὐ καλῶς ἔχει λέγειν τὸ φρονοῦν, ὅταν φρονῇ, ἀλλοιοῦ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 9σθαι, ὥσπερ οὐδὲ τὸν οἰκοδόμον ὅταν οἰκοδομῇ. τὸ μὲν οὖν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus10εἰς ἐντελέχειαν ἄγειν ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος [κατὰ] τὸ νοοῦν καὶ‎

11φρονοῦν οὐ διδασκαλίαν ἀλλ' ἑτέραν ἐπωνυμίαν ἔχειν δί-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 12καιον· τὸ δ' ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος μανθάνον καὶ λαμβάνον ἐπι-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 13στήμην ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος καὶ διδασκαλικοῦ ἤτοι οὐδὲ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 14πάσχειν φατέον, [ὥσπερ εἴρηται,] ἢ δύο τρόπους εἶναι ἀλ-‎

Link 15λοιώσεως, τήν τε ἐπὶ τὰς στερητικὰς διαθέσεις μεταβολὴν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 16καὶ τὴν ἐπὶ τὰς ἕξεις καὶ τὴν φύσιν. τοῦ δ' αἰσθητικοῦ ἡ μὲν‎

Editor’s Note Link 17πρώτη μεταβολὴ γίνεται ὑπὸ τοῦ γεννῶντος, ὅταν δὲ γεν-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 18νηθῇ, ἔχει ἤδη, ὥσπερ ἐπιστήμην, καὶ τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι. τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19κατ' ἐνέργειαν δὲ ὁμοίως λέγεται τῷ θεωρεῖν· διαφέρει δέ, ὅτι‎

Editor’s Note Link 20τοῦ μὲν τὰ ποιητικὰ τῆς ἐνεργείας ἔξωθεν, τὸ ὁρατὸν καὶ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus21ἀκουστόν, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὰ λοιπὰ τῶν αἰσθητῶν. αἴτιον δ'‎

Link 22ὅτι τῶν καθ' ἕκαστον ἡ κατ' ἐνέργειαν αἴσθησις, ἡ δ' ἐπιστήμη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus23τῶν καθόλου· ταῦτα δ' ἐν αὐτῇ πώς ἐστι τῇ ψυχῇ. διὸ νοῆσαι‎

Critical Apparatus24μὲν ἐπ' αὐτῷ, ὁπόταν βούληται, αἰσθάνεσθαι δ' οὐκ ἐπ'‎

Critical Apparatus25αὐτῷ· ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ ὑπάρχειν τὸ αἰσθητόν. ὁμοίως δὲ τοῦτο‎

Critical Apparatus26ἔχει κἀν ταῖς ἐπιστήμαις ταῖς τῶν αἰσθητῶν, καὶ διὰ τὴν‎

Critical Apparatus27αὐτὴν αἰτίαν, ὅτι τὰ αἰσθητὰ τῶν καθ' ἕκαστα καὶ τῶν ἔξωθεν‎.

Critical Apparatus28ἀλλὰ περὶ μὲν τούτων διασαφῆσαι καιρὸς γένοιτ' ἂν καὶ εἰσ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29αῦθις· νῦν δὲ διωρίσθω τοσοῦτον, ὅτι οὐχ ἁπλοῦ ὄντος τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus30δυνάμει λεγομένου, ἀλλὰ τοῦ μὲν ὥσπερ ἂν εἴποιμεν τὸν παῖδα‎

Editor’s Note31δύνασθαι στρατηγεῖν, τοῦ δὲ ὡς τὸν ἐν ἡλικίᾳ ὄντα, οὕτως ἔχει‎

418a1τὸ αἰσθητικόν. ἐπεὶ δ' ἀνώνυμος αὐτῶν ἡ διαφορά, διώρισται‎

Critical Apparatus2δὲ περὶ αὐτῶν ὅτι ἕτερα καὶ πῶς ἕτερα, χρῆσθαι ἀναγκαῖον τῷ‎

pg 103Critical Apparatus Link 3πάσχειν καὶ ἀλλοιοῦσθαι ὡς κυρίοις ὀνόμασιν. τὸ δ' αἰσθητικὸν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus4δυνάμει ἐστὶν οἷον τὸ αἰσθητὸν ἤδη ἐντελεχείᾳ, καθάπερ εἴρη-‎

Critical Apparatus5ται. πάσχει μὲν οὖν οὐχ ὅμοιον ὄν, πεπονθὸς δ' ὡμοίωται‎

Link 6καὶ ἔστιν οἷον ἐκεῖνο‎.

6 Editor’s Note Link 7Λεκτέον δὲ καθ' ἑκάστην αἴσθησιν περὶ τῶν αἰσθητῶν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus8πρῶτον. λέγεται δὲ τὸ αἰσθητὸν τριχῶς, ὧν δύο μὲν καθ'‎

9αὑτά φαμεν αἰσθάνεσθαι, τὸ δὲ ἓν κατὰ συμβεβηκός. τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus10δὲ δυοῖν τὸ μὲν ἴδιόν ἐστιν ἑκάστης αἰσθήσεως, τὸ δὲ κοινὸν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11πασῶν. λέγω δ' ἴδιον μὲν ὃ μὴ ἐνδέχεται ἑτέρᾳ αἰσθήσει‎

12αἰσθάνεσθαι, καὶ περὶ ὃ μὴ ἐνδέχεται ἀπατηθῆναι, οἷον‎

Editor’s Note13ὄψις χρώματος καὶ ἀκοὴ ψόφου καὶ γεῦσις χυμοῦ, ἡ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 14δ' ἁφὴ πλείους [μὲν] ἔχει διαφοράς, ἀλλ' ἑκάστη γε κρίνει‎

Critical Apparatus Link 15περὶ τούτων, καὶ οὐκ ἀπατᾶται ὅτι χρῶμα οὐδ' ὅτι ψόφος‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 16ἀλλὰ τί τὸ κεχρωσμένον ἢ ποῦ, ἢ τί τὸ ψοφοῦν ἢ ποῦ. τὰ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17μὲν οὖν τοιαῦτα λέγεται ἴδια ἑκάστης, κοινὰ δὲ κίνησις, ἠρε-‎

Link 18μία, ἀριθμός, σχῆμα, μέγεθος· τὰ γὰρ τοιαῦτα οὐδεμιᾶς‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19ἐστὶν ἴδια, ἀλλὰ κοινὰ πάσαις· καὶ γὰρ ἁφῇ κίνησίς τίς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 20ἐστιν αἰσθητὴ καὶ ὄψει. κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς δὲ λέγεται αἰ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21σθητόν, οἷον εἰ τὸ λευκὸν εἴη Διάρους υἱός· κατὰ συμ-‎

Critical Apparatus22βεβηκὸς γὰρ τούτου αἰσθάνεται, ὅτι τῷ λευκῷ συμβέβηκε‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 23τοῦτο, οὗ αἰσθάνεται· διὸ καὶ οὐδὲν πάσχει ᾗ τοιοῦτον ὑπὸ τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 24αἰσθητοῦ. τῶν δὲ καθ' αὑτὰ αἰσθητῶν τὰ ἴδια κυρίως ἐστὶν‎

Link 25αἰσθητά, καὶ πρὸς ἃ ἡ οὐσία πέφυκεν ἑκάστης αἰσθήσεως‎.

7 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 26Οὗ μὲν οὖν ἐστιν ἡ ὄψις, τοῦτ' ἐστὶν ὁρατόν, ὁρατὸν δ'‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus27ἐστὶ χρῶμά τε καὶ ὃ λόγῳ μὲν ἔστιν εἰπεῖν, ἀνώνυμον‎

Critical Apparatus28δὲ τυγχάνει ὄν· δῆλον δὲ ἔσται ὃ λέγομεν προελθοῦσι‎.

pg 104Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 29τὸ γὰρ ὁρατόν ἐστι χρῶμα, τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ τὸ ἐπὶ τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus30καθ' αὑτὸ ὁρατοῦ· καθ' αὑτὸ δὲ οὐ τῷ λόγῳ, ἀλλ' ὅτι ἐν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 31ἑαυτῷ ἔχει τὸ αἴτιον τοῦ εἶναι ὁρατόν. πᾶν δὲ χρῶμα κινητι-‎

418bEditor’s Note1κόν ἐστι τοῦ κατ' ἐνέργειαν διαφανοῦς, καὶ τοῦτ' ἐστὶν αὐτοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus2ἡ φύσις· διόπερ οὐχ ὁρατὸν ἄνευ φωτός, ἀλλὰ πᾶν τὸ ἑκάστου‎

Critical Apparatus3χρῶμα ἐν φωτὶ ὁρᾶται. διὸ περὶ φωτὸς πρῶτον λεκτέον τί‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus4ἐστιν. ἔστι δή τι διαφανές. διαφανὲς δὲ λέγω ὃ ἔστι μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus5ὁρατόν, οὐ καθ' αὑτὸ δὲ ὁρατὸν ὡς ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, ἀλλὰ δι'‎

Critical Apparatus6ἀλλότριον χρῶμα. τοιοῦτον δέ ἐστιν ἀὴρ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ πολλὰ‎

Critical Apparatus7τῶν στερεῶν· οὐ γὰρ ᾗ ὕδωρ οὐδ' ᾗ ἀὴρ διαφανές, ἀλλ' ὅτι‎

Critical Apparatus8ἔστι τις φύσις ἐνυπάρχουσα ἡ αὐτὴ ἐν τούτοις ἀμφοτέροις καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Link 9ἐν τῷ ἀϊδίῳ τῷ ἄνω σώματι. φῶς δέ ἐστιν ἡ τούτου ἐνέργεια‎,

Critical Apparatus10τοῦ διαφανοῦς ᾗ διαφανές. δυνάμει δέ, ἐν ᾧ τοῦτ' ἐστί, καὶ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus11σκότος. τὸ δὲ φῶς οἷον χρῶμά ἐστι τοῦ διαφανοῦς, ὅταν ᾖ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 12ἐντελεχείᾳ διαφανὲς ὑπὸ πυρὸς ἢ τοιούτου οἷον τὸ ἄνω‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13σῶμα· καὶ γὰρ τούτῳ τι ὑπάρχει ἓν καὶ ταὐτόν. τί μὲν οὖν‎

Critical Apparatus14τὸ διαφανὲς καὶ τί τὸ φῶς, εἴρηται, ὅτι οὔτε πῦρ οὔθ' ὅλως‎

Editor’s Note15σῶμα οὐδ' ἀπορροὴ σώματος οὐδενός (εἴη γὰρ ἂν σῶμά τι καὶ‎

16οὕτως), ἀλλὰ πυρὸς ἢ τοιούτου τινὸς παρουσία ἐν τῷ δια-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus17φανεῖ· οὔτε γὰρ δύο σώματα ἅμα δυνατὸν ἐν τῷ αὐτῷ εἶναι‎,

Critical Apparatus18δοκεῖ τε τὸ φῶς ἐναντίον εἶναι τῷ σκότει· ἔστι δὲ τὸ σκότος‎

Critical Apparatus19στέρησις τῆς τοιαύτης ἕξεως ἐκ διαφανοῦς, ὥστε δῆλον ὅτι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 20καὶ ἡ τούτου παρουσία τὸ φῶς ἐστιν. καὶ οὐκ ὀρθῶς Ἐμ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21πεδοκλῆς, οὐδ' εἴ τις ἄλλος οὕτως εἴρηκεν, ὡς φερομένου τοῦ‎

pg 105Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22φωτὸς καὶ γιγνομένου ποτὲ μεταξὺ τῆς γῆς καὶ τοῦ περι-‎

Critical Apparatus23έχοντος, ἡμᾶς δὲ λανθάνοντος· τοῦτο γάρ ἐστι καὶ παρὰ‎

Critical Apparatus24τὴν τοῦ λόγου ἐνάργειαν καὶ παρὰ τὰ φαινόμενα· ἐν μι-‎

Critical Apparatus25κρῷ μὲν γὰρ διαστήματι λάθοι ἄν, ἀπ' ἀνατολῆς δ' ἐπὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus26δυσμὰς τὸ λανθάνειν μέγα λίαν τὸ αἴτημα‎.

26                                                                            ἔστι δὲ χρώ-‎

Critical Apparatus27ματος μὲν δεκτικὸν τὸ ἄχρουν, ψόφου δὲ τὸ ἄψοφον‎.

Critical Apparatus28ἄχρουν δ' ἐστὶ τὸ διαφανὲς καὶ τὸ ἀόρατον ἢ τὸ μόλις‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29ὁρώμενον, οἷον δοκεῖ τὸ σκοτεινόν. τοιοῦτον δὲ τὸ διαφανὲς‎

30μέν, ἀλλ' οὐχ ὅταν ᾖ ἐντελεχείᾳ διαφανές, ἀλλ' ὅταν δυ-‎

31νάμει· ἡ γὰρ αὐτὴ φύσις ὁτὲ μὲν σκότος ὁτὲ δὲ φῶς‎

419aEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus1ἐστιν. οὐ πάντα δὲ ὁρατὰ ἐν φωτὶ ἐστιν, ἀλλὰ μόνον ἑκάστου‎

Critical Apparatus Link 2τὸ οἰκεῖον χρῶμα· ἔνια γὰρ ἐν μὲν τῷ φωτὶ οὐχ ὁρᾶται‎,

Critical Apparatus3ἐν δὲ τῷ σκότει ποιεῖ αἴσθησιν οἷον τὰ πυρώδη ϕαινόμενα‎

Critical Apparatus4καὶ λάμποντα (ἀνώνυμα δ' ἐστὶ ταῦτα ἑνὶ ὀνόματι), οἷον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus5μύκης, κρέας, κεϕαλαὶ ἰχθύων καὶ λεπίδες καὶ ὀϕθαλμοί·‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6ἀλλ' οὐδενὸς ὁρᾶται τούτων τὸ οἰκεῖον χρῶμα. δι' ἣν‎

Critical Apparatus7μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν ταῦτα ὁρᾶται, ἄλλος λόγος· νῦν δ' ἐπὶ το-‎

8σοῦτον φανερόν ἐστιν, ὅτι τὸ μὲν ἐν φωτὶ ὁρώμενον χρῶμα‎

Critical Apparatus Link 9(διὸ καὶ οὐχ ὁρᾶται ἄνευ φωτός· τοῦτο γὰρ ἦν αὐτῷ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus10χρώματι εἶναι, τὸ κινητικῷ εἶναι τοῦ κατ' ἐνέργειαν δια-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11φανοῦς), ἡ δ' ἐντελέχεια τοῦ διαφανοῦς φῶς ἐστιν. σημεῖον δὲ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 12τούτου φανερόν· ἐὰν γάρ τις θῇ τὸ ἔχον χρῶμα ἐπ' αὐτὴν‎

Editor’s Note Link 13τὴν ὄψιν, οὐκ ὄψεται· ἀλλὰ τὸ μὲν χρῶμα κινεῖ τὸ δια-‎

Critical Apparatus14φανές, οἷον τὸν ἀέρα, ὑπὸ τούτου δὲ συνεχοῦς ὄντος κινεῖται‎

Editor’s Note15τὸ αἰσθητήριον. οὐ γὰρ καλῶς τοῦτο λέγει Δημόκριτος, οἰό-‎

Critical Apparatus16μενος, εἰ γένοιτο κενὸν τὸ μεταξύ, ὁρᾶσθαι ἂν ἀκριβῶς καὶ‎

pg 106Critical Apparatus Link 17εἰ μύρμηξ ἐν τῷ οὐρανῷ εἴη· τοῦτο γὰρ ἀδύνατόν ἐστιν. πά-‎

Critical Apparatus18σχοντος γάρ τι τοῦ αἰσθητικοῦ γίνεται τὸ ὁρᾶν· ὑπ' αὐτοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus19μὲν οὖν τοῦ ὁρωμένου χρώματος ἀδύνατον· λείπεται δὴ ὑπὸ‎

Critical Apparatus20τοῦ μεταξύ, ὥστ' ἀναγκαῖόν τι εἶναι μεταξύ· κενοῦ δὲ γενο-‎

Critical Apparatus21μένου οὐχ ὅτι ἀκριβῶς, ἀλλ' ὅλως οὐθὲν ὀφθήσεται‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22δι' ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν τὸ χρῶμα ἀναγκαῖον ἐν φωτὶ ὁρᾶσθαι‎,

Critical Apparatus23εἴρηται. πῦρ δὲ ἐν ἀμφοῖν ὁρᾶται, καὶ ἐν σκότει καὶ ἐν φωτί‎,

24καὶ τοῦτο ἐξ ἀνάγκης· τὸ γὰρ διαφανὲς ὑπὸ τούτου γίνεται‎

Link 25διαφανές. ὁ δ' αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ περὶ ψόφου καὶ ὀσμῆς‎

Critical Apparatus26ἐστιν· οὐθὲν γὰρ αὐτῶν ἁπτόμενον τοῦ αἰσθητηρίου ποιεῖ τὴν‎

Link 27αἴσθησιν, ἀλλ' ὑπὸ μὲν ὀσμῆς καὶ ψόφου τὸ μεταξὺ κι-‎

Critical Apparatus28νεῖται, ὑπὸ δὲ τούτου τῶν αἰσθητηρίων ἑκάτερον· ὅταν δ' ἐπ'‎

Critical Apparatus29αὐτό τις ἐπιθῇ τὸ αἰσθητήριον τὸ ψοφοῦν ἢ τὸ ὄζον, οὐδεμίαν‎

Editor’s Note30αἴσθησιν ποιήσει. περὶ δὲ ἁφῆς καὶ γεύσεως ἔχει μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus31ὁμοίως, οὐ φαίνεται δέ· δι' ἣν δ' αἰτίαν, ὕστερον ἔσται δῆλον‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 32τὸ δὲ μεταξὺ ψόφων μὲν ἀήρ, ὀσμῆς δ' ἀνώνυμον· κοινὸν‎

Critical Apparatus33γάρ τι πάθος ἐπ' ἀέρος καὶ ὕδατος ἔστιν, ὥσπερ τὸ δια-‎

Critical Apparatus34φανὲς χρώματι, οὕτω τῷ ἔχοντι ὀσμὴν ὃ ἐν ἀμφοτέροις‎

Critical Apparatus35ὑπάρχει τούτοις· φαίνεται γὰρ καὶ τὰ ἔνυδρα τῶν ζῴων‎

419bEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus1ἔχειν αἴσθησιν ὀσμῆς. ἀλλ' ὁ μὲν ἄνθρωπος, καὶ τῶν πεζῶν‎

Editor’s Note2ὅσα ἀναπνεῖ, ἀδυνατεῖ ὀσμᾶσθαι μὴ ἀναπνέοντα. ἡ δ' αἰ-‎

3τία καὶ περὶ τούτων ὕστερον λεχθήσεται‎.

8 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 4Νῦν δὲ πρῶτον περὶ ψόφου καὶ ἀκοῆς διορίσωμεν. ἔστι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus5δὲ διττὸς ὁ ψόφος· ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἐνέργειά τις, ὁ δὲ δύναμις·‎

6τὰ μὲν γὰρ οὔ φαμεν ἔχειν ψόφον, οἷον σπόγγον, ἔρια, τὰ‎

7δ' ἔχειν, οἷον χαλκὸν καὶ ὅσα στερεὰ καὶ λεῖα, ὅτι δύνα-‎

Editor’s Note8ται ψοφῆσαι (τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν αὐτοῦ μεταξὺ καὶ τῆς ἀκοῆς‎

9ἐμποιῆσαι ψόφον ἐνεργείᾳ)· γίνεται δ' ὁ κατ' ἐνέργειαν ψό-‎

Editor’s Note10φος ἀεί τινος πρός τι καὶ ἔν τινι· πληγὴ γάρ ἐστιν ἡ ποι-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus11οῦσα. διὸ καὶ ἀδύνατον ἑνὸς ὄντος γενέσθαι ψόφον· ἕτερον‎

pg 10712γὰρ τὸ τύπτον καὶ τὸ τυπτόμενον· ὥστε τὸ ψοφοῦν πρός τι‎

Editor’s Note13ψοφεῖ· πληγὴ δ' οὐ γίνεται ἄνευ φορᾶς. ὥσπερ δ' εἴπομεν‎,

14οὐ τῶν τυχόντων πληγὴ ὁ ψόφος· οὐθένα γὰρ ποιεῖ ψόφον‎

Critical Apparatus15ἔρια ἂν πληγῇ, ἀλλὰ χαλκὸς καὶ ὅσα λεῖα καὶ κοῖλα·‎

Critical Apparatus16ὁ μὲν χαλκὸς ὅτι λεῖος, τὰ δὲ κοῖλα τῇ ἀνακλάσει πολ-‎

17λὰς ποιεῖ πληγὰς μετὰ τὴν πρώτην, ἀδυνατοῦντος ἐξελθεῖν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 18τοῦ κινηθέντος. ἔτι ἀκούεται ἐν ἀέρι, κἀν ὕδατι, ἀλλ' ἧττον‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 19οὐκ ἔστι δὲ ψόφου κύριος ὁ ἀὴρ οὐδὲ τὸ ὕδωρ, ἀλλὰ δεῖ‎

Critical Apparatus20στερεῶν πληγὴν γενέσθαι πρὸς ἄλληλα καὶ πρὸς τὸν ἀέρα‎.

Critical Apparatus21τοῦτο δὲ γίνεται ὅταν ὑπομένῃ πληγεὶς ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ μὴ δια-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22χυθῇ. διὸ ἐὰν ταχέως καὶ σφοδρῶς πληγῇ, ψοφεῖ· δεῖ γὰρ‎

23φθάσαι τὴν κίνησιν τοῦ ῥαπίζοντος τὴν θρύψιν τοῦ ἀέρος‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus24ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ σωρὸν ἢ ὁρμαθὸν ψάμμου τύπτοι τις φερό-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus25μενον ταχύ. ἠχὼ δὲ γίνεται ὅταν, ἀέρος ἑνὸς γενομέ-‎

Critical Apparatus26νου διὰ τὸ ἀγγεῖον τὸ διορίσαν καὶ κωλῦσαν θρυφθῆναι‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus27πάλιν ὁ ἀὴρ ἀπωσθῇ, ὥσπερ σφαῖρα. ἔοικε δ' ἀεὶ γίνεσθαι‎

28ἠχώ, ἀλλ' οὐ σαφής, ἐπεὶ συμβαίνει γε ἐπὶ τοῦ ψόφου‎

29καθάπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τοῦ φωτός· καὶ γὰρ τὸ φῶς ἀεὶ ἀνακλᾶ-‎

Critical Apparatus30ται (οὐδὲ γὰρ ἂν ἐγίνετο πάντῃ φῶς, ἀλλὰ σκότος ἔξω τοῦ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31ἡλιουμένου), ἀλλ' οὐχ οὕτως ἀνακλᾶται ὥσπερ ἀφ' ὕδατος‎

Critical Apparatus32ἢ χαλκοῦ ἢ καί τινος ἄλλου τῶν λείων, ὥστε σκιὰν ποιεῖν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus33ᾗ τὸ φῶς ὁρίζομεν. τὸ δὲ κενὸν ὀρθῶς λέγεται κύριον τοῦ‎

34ἀκούειν. δοκεῖ γὰρ εἶναι κενὸν ὁ ἀήρ, οὗτος δ' ἐστὶν ὁ ποιῶν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus35ἀκούειν, ὅταν κινηθῇ συνεχὴς καὶ εἷς. ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ ψαθυρὸς‎

420aCritical Apparatus1εἶναι οὐ γεγωνεῖ, ἂν μὴ λεῖον ᾖ τὸ πληγέν. τότε δὲ εἷς γί-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 2νεται ἅμα διὰ τὸ ἐπίπεδον· ἓν γὰρ τὸ τοῦ λείου ἐπίπεδον‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 3ψοφητικὸν μὲν οὖν τὸ κινητικὸν ἑνὸς ἀέρος συνεχείᾳ μέχρις‎

pg 108Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus4ἀκοῆς. ἀκοῇ δὲ συμφυὴς ⟨ἔστιν⟩ ἀήρ· διὰ δὲ τὸ ἐν ἀέρι εἶναι, κι-‎

Critical Apparatus5νουμένου τοῦ ἔξω ὁ εἴσω κινεῖται. διόπερ οὐ πάντῃ τὸ ζῷον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6ἀκούει, οὐδὲ πάντῃ διέρχεται ὁ ἀήρ· οὐ γὰρ πάντῃ ἔχει ἀέρα †τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 7κινησόμενον μέρος καὶ ἔμψυχον†. αὐτὸς μὲν δὴ ἄψοφον ὁ ἀὴρ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus8διὰ τὸ εὔθρυπτον· ὅταν δὲ κωλυθῇ θρύπτεσθαι, ἡ τούτου‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 9κίνησις ψόφος. ὁ δ' ἐν τοῖς ὠσὶν ἐγκατῳκοδόμηται πρὸς τὸ‎

10ἀκίνητος εἶναι, ὅπως ἀκριβῶς αἰσθάνηται πάσας τὰς δια-‎

11φορὰς τῆς κινήσεως. διὰ ταῦτα δὲ καὶ ἐν ὕδατι ἀκούο-‎

12μεν, ὅτι οὐκ εἰσέρχεται πρὸς αὐτὸν τὸν συμφυῆ ἀέρα· ἀλλ'‎

Editor’s Note13οὐδ' εἰς τὸ οὖς, διὰ τὰς ἕλικας. ὅταν δὲ τοῦτο συμβῇ, οὐκ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus14ἀκούει· οὐδ' ἂν ἡ μῆνιγξ κάμῃ, ὥσπερ τὸ ἐπὶ τῇ κόρῃ δέρ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus15μα [ὅταν κάμῃ]. ἀλλ' οὐ σημεῖον τοῦ ἀκούειν ἢ μὴ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus16ἠχεῖν τὸ οὖς ὥσπερ τὸ κέρας· ἀεὶ γὰρ οἰκείαν τινὰ κί-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 17νησιν ὁ ἀὴρ κινεῖται ὁ ἐν τοῖς ὠσίν, ἀλλ' ὁ ψόφος ἀλλό-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus18τριος καὶ οὐκ ἴδιος. καὶ διὰ τοῦτό φασιν ἀκούειν τῷ κενῷ καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus19ἠχοῦντι, ὅτι ἀκούομεν τῷ ἔχοντι ὡρισμένον τὸν ἀέρα‎.

19                                                                                     πότερον‎

20δὲ ψοφεῖ τὸ τυπτόμενον ἢ τὸ τύπτον; ἢ καὶ ἄμφω, τρό-‎

21πον δ' ἕτερον; ἔστι γὰρ ὁ ψόφος κίνησις τοῦ δυναμένου κι-‎

Critical Apparatus22νεῖσθαι τὸν τρόπον τοῦτον ὅνπερ τὰ ἀφαλλόμενα ἀπὸ τῶν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus23λείων, ὅταν τις κρούσῃ. οὐ δὴ πᾶν, ὥσπερ εἴρηται, ψοφεῖ‎

Critical Apparatus24τυπτόμενον καὶ τύπτον, οἷον ἐὰν πατάξῃ βελόνη βελόνην‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 25ἀλλὰ δεῖ τὸ τυπτόμενον ὁμαλὸν εἶναι, ὥστε τὸν ἀέρα ἀθροῦν‎

pg 109Critical Apparatus26ἀφάλλεσθαι καὶ σείεσθαι. αἱ δὲ διαφοραὶ τῶν ψοφούντων‎

Critical Apparatus27ἐν τῷ κατ' ἐνέργειαν ψόφῳ δηλοῦνται· ὥσπερ γὰρ ἄνευ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 28φωτὸς οὐχ ὁρᾶται τὰ χρώματα, οὕτως οὐδ' ἄνευ ψόφου τὸ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29ὀξὺ καὶ τὸ βαρύ. ταῦτα δὲ λέγεται κατὰ μεταφορὰν ἀπὸ‎

Critical Apparatus30τῶν ἁπτῶν· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὀξὺ κινεῖ τὴν αἴσθησιν ἐν ὀλίγῳ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31χρόνῳ ἐπὶ πολύ, τὸ δὲ βαρὺ ἐν πολλῷ ἐπ' ὀλίγον. οὐ δὴ‎

32ταχὺ τὸ ὀξύ, τὸ δὲ βαρὺ βραδύ, ἀλλὰ γίνεται τοῦ μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus33διὰ τὸ τάχος ἡ κίνησις τοιαύτη, τοῦ δὲ διὰ βραδυτῆτα‎,

420bCritical Apparatus1καὶ ἔοικεν ἀνάλογον ἔχειν τῷ περὶ τὴν ἁφὴν ὀξεῖ καὶ ἀμ-‎

Critical Apparatus2βλεῖ· τὸ μὲν γὰρ ὀξὺ οἷον κεντεῖ, τὸ δ' ἀμβλὺ οἷον ὠθεῖ‎,

Critical Apparatus3διὰ τὸ κινεῖν τὸ μὲν ἐν ὀλίγῳ τὸ δὲ ἐν πολλῷ, ὥστε συμ-‎

Critical Apparatus4βαίνει τὸ μὲν ταχὺ τὸ δὲ βραδὺ εἶναι‎.

Editor’s Note5περὶ μὲν οὖν ψόφου ταύτῃ διωρίσθω. ἡ δὲ φωνὴ ψόφος τίς‎

Critical Apparatus6ἐστιν ἐμψύχου· τῶν γὰρ ἀψύχων οὐθὲν φωνεῖ, ἀλλὰ καθ' ὁμοιό-‎

Critical Apparatus7τητα λέγεται φωνεῖν, οἷον αὐλὸς καὶ λύρα καὶ ὅσα ἄλλα τῶν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus8ἀψύχων ἀπότασιν ἔχει καὶ μέλος καὶ διάλεκτον. ἔοικε γάρ, ὅτι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus9καὶ ἡ φωνὴ ταῦτ' ἔχει. πολλὰ δὲ τῶν ζῴων οὐκ ἔχουσι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus10φωνήν, οἷον τά τε ἄναιμα καὶ τῶν ἐναίμων ἰχθύες (καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus11τοῦτ' εὐλόγως, εἴπερ ἀέρος κίνησίς τίς ἐστιν ὁ ψόφος), ἀλλ'‎

Critical Apparatus12οἱ λεγόμενοι φωνεῖν, οἷον ⟨οἱ⟩ ἐν τῷ Ἀχελῴῳ, ψοφοῦσι τοῖς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 13βραγχίοις ἤ τινι ἑτέρῳ τοιούτῳ, φωνὴ δ' ἐστὶ ζῴου ψόφος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus14οὐ τῷ τυχόντι μορίῳ. ἀλλ' ἐπεὶ πᾶν ψοφεῖ τύπτοντός‎

Critical Apparatus15τινος καί τι καὶ ἔν τινι, τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶν ἀήρ, εὐλόγως ἂν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 16φωνοίη ταῦτα μόνα ὅσα δέχεται τὸν ἀέρα. τῷ γὰρ ἤδη‎

Critical Apparatus17ἀναπνεομένῳ καταχρῆται ἡ φύσις ἐπὶ δύο ἔργα—καθάπερ‎

Critical Apparatus18τῇ γλώττῃ ἐπί τε τὴν γεῦσιν καὶ τὴν διάλεκτον, ὧν ἡ μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19γεῦσις ἀναγκαῖον (διὸ καὶ πλείοσιν ὑπάρχει), ἡ δ' ἑρμη-‎

Critical Apparatus20νεία ἕνεκα τοῦ εὖ, οὕτω καὶ τῷ πνεύματι πρός τε τὴν θερ-‎

pg 110Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus21μότητα τὴν ἐντὸς ὡς ἀναγκαῖον ⟨ὄν⟩ (τὸ δ' αἴτιον ἐν ἑτέροις‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus22εἰρήσεται) καὶ πρὸς τὴν φωνὴν ὅπως ὑπάρχῃ τὸ εὖ. ὄργα-‎

Critical Apparatus23νον δὲ τῇ ἀναπνοῇ ὁ φάρυγξ· οὗ δ' ἕνεκα τὸ μόριόν‎

Critical Apparatus24ἐστι τοῦτο, πνεύμων· τούτῳ γὰρ τῷ μορίῳ πλέον ἔχει τὸ‎

Editor’s Note25θερμὸν τὰ πεζὰ τῶν ἄλλων. δεῖται δὲ τῆς ἀναπνοῆς καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus26ὁ περὶ τὴν καρδίαν τόπος πρῶτος. διὸ ἀναγκαῖον εἴσω ἀνα-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus27πνεόμενον εἰσιέναι τὸν ἀέρα. ὥστε ἡ πληγὴ τοῦ ἀναπνεομένου‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus28ἀέρος ὑπὸ τῆς ἐν τούτοις τοῖς μορίοις ψυχῆς πρὸς τὴν κα-‎

Editor’s Note29λουμένην ἀρτηρίαν φωνή ἐστιν (οὐ γὰρ πᾶς ζῴου ψόφος φωνή‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus30καθάπερ εἴπομεν—ἔστι γὰρ καὶ τῇ γλώττῃ ψοφεῖν καὶ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31ὡς οἱ βήττοντες—ἀλλὰ δεῖ ἔμψυχόν τε εἶναι τὸ τύπτον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus32καὶ μετὰ φαντασίας τινός· σημαντικὸς γὰρ δή τις ψόφος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 33ἐστὶν ἡ φωνή)· καὶ οὐ τοῦ ἀναπνεομένου ἀέρος ὥσπερ ἡ βήξ‎,

421aCritical Apparatus1ἀλλὰ τούτῳ τύπτει τὸν ἐν τῇ ἀρτηρίᾳ πρὸς αὐτήν. σημεῖον‎

2δὲ τὸ μὴ δύνασθαι φωνεῖν ἀναπνέοντα μηδ' ἐκπνέοντα‎,

Critical Apparatus3ἀλλὰ κατέχοντα· κινεῖ γὰρ τούτῳ ὁ κατέχων. φανερὸν δὲ‎

4καὶ διότι οἱ ἰχθύες ἄφωνοι· οὐ γὰρ ἔχουσι φάρυγγα. τοῦτο‎

Critical Apparatus5δὲ τὸ μόριον οὐκ ἔχουσιν ὅτι οὐ δέχονται τὸν ἀέρα οὐδ' ἀνα-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6πνέουσιν. δι' ἣν μὲν οὖν αἰτίαν, ἕτερός ἐστι λόγος‎.

9 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 7Περὶ δὲ ὀσμῆς καὶ ὀσφραντοῦ ἧττον εὐδιόριστόν ἐστι τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus8εἰρημένων· οὐ γὰρ δῆλον ποῖόν τί ἐστιν ἡ ὀσμή, οὕτως ὡς ὁ‎

Critical Apparatus9ψόφος ἢ τὸ χρῶμα. αἴτιον δ' ὅτι τὴν αἴσθησιν ταύτην οὐκ‎

pg 111Critical Apparatus Link 10ἔχομεν ἀκριβῆ, ἀλλὰ χείρω πολλῶν ζῴων· φαύλως γὰρ‎

Critical Apparatus11ἄνθρωπος ὀσμᾶται, καὶ οὐθενὸς αἰσθάνεται τῶν ὀσφραντῶν‎

12ἄνευ τοῦ λυπηροῦ ἢ τοῦ ἡδέος, ὡς οὐκ ὄντος ἀκριβοῦς τοῦ αἰ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13σθητηρίου. εὔλογον δ' οὕτω καὶ τὰ σκληρόφθαλμα τῶν χρω-‎

Critical Apparatus14μάτων αἰσθάνεσθαι, καὶ μὴ διαδήλους αὐτοῖς εἶναι τὰς‎

15διαφορὰς τῶν χρωμάτων πλὴν τῷ φοβερῷ καὶ ἀφόβῳ· οὕτω‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus16δὲ καὶ περὶ τὰς ὀσμὰς τὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων γένος. ἐοικε μὲν‎

17γὰρ ἀνάλογον ἔχειν πρὸς τὴν γεῦσιν, καὶ ὁμοίως τὰ εἴδη τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus18χυμῶν τοῖς τῆς ὀσμῆς, ἀλλ' ἀκριβεστέραν ἔχομεν τὴν γεῦ-‎

Critical Apparatus19σιν διὰ τὸ εἶναι αὐτὴν ἁφήν τινα, ταύτην δ' ἔχειν τὴν αἴ-‎

Critical Apparatus20σθησιν τὸν ἄνθρωπον ἀκριβεστάτην· ἐν μὲν γὰρ ταῖς ἄλλαις‎

Critical Apparatus21λείπεται πολλῶν τῶν ζῴων, κατὰ δὲ τὴν ἁφὴν πολλῷ τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus22ἄλλων διαφερόντως ἀκριβοῖ· διὸ καὶ φρονιμώτατόν ἐστι τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23ζῴων. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ καὶ ἐν τῷ γένει τῶν ἀνθρώπων παρὰ‎

Critical Apparatus24τὸ αἰσθητήριον τοῦτο εἶναι εὐφυεῖς καὶ ἀφυεῖς, παρ' ἄλλο‎

25δὲ μηδέν· οἱ μὲν γὰρ σκληρόσαρκοι ἀφυεῖς τὴν διάνοιαν‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus26οἱ δὲ μαλακόσαρκοι εὐφυεῖς‎.

26                                                        ἔστι δ', ὥσπερ χυμὸς ὁ μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus27γλυκὺς ὁ δὲ πικρός, οὕτω καὶ ὀσμαί, ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν ἔχουσι‎

Critical Apparatus28τὴν ἀνάλογον ὀσμὴν καὶ χυμόν, λέγω δὲ οἷον γλυκεῖαν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 29ὀσμὴν καὶ γλυκὺν χυμόν, τὰ δὲ τοὐναντίον. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus30δριμεῖα καὶ αὐστηρὰ καὶ ὀξεῖα καὶ λιπαρά ἐστιν ὀσμή‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31ἀλλ' ὥσπερ εἴπομεν, διὰ τὸ μὴ σφόδρα διαδήλους εἶναι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus32τὰς ὀσμὰς ὥσπερ τοὺς χυμούς, [ἀπὸ τούτων] εἴληφε τὰ ὀνό-‎

421bCritical Apparatus1ματα καθ' ὁμοιότητα τῶν πραγμάτων, ἡ μὲν γλυκεῖα‎

2κρόκου καὶ μέλιτος, ἡ δὲ δριμεῖα θύμου καὶ τῶν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus3τοιούτων· τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. ἔστι δ' ὥσ-‎

pg 112Critical Apparatus4περ ἡ ἀκοὴ καὶ ἑκάστη τῶν αἰσθήσεων, ἡ μὲν τοῦ ἀκουστοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus5καὶ ἀνηκούστου, ἡ δὲ τοῦ ὁρατοῦ καὶ ἀοράτου, καὶ ἡ ὄσφρη-‎

Critical Apparatus6σις τοῦ ὀσφραντοῦ καὶ ἀνοσφράντου. ἀνόσφραντον δὲ τὸ μὲν‎

Critical Apparatus7παρὰ τὸ ὅλως ἀδύνατον ⟨εἶναι⟩ ἔχειν ὀσμήν, τὸ δὲ μικρὰν‎

Critical Apparatus8ἔχον καὶ φαύλην. ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ τὸ ἄγευστον λέγεται‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 9ἔστι δὲ καὶ ἡ ὄσφρησις διὰ τοῦ μεταξύ, οἷον ἀέρος ἢ ὕδατος·‎

Critical Apparatus Link 10καὶ γὰρ τὰ ἔνυδρα δοκοῦσιν ὀσμῆς αἰσθάνεσθαι, ὁμοίως καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus11τὰ ἔναιμα καὶ τὰ ἄναιμα, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ἀέρι· καὶ γὰρ‎

12τούτων ἔνια πόρρωθεν ἀπαντᾷ πρὸς τὴν τροφὴν ὕποσμα‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13γινόμενα. διὸ καὶ ἄπορον φαίνεται εἰ πάντα μὲν ὁμοίως‎

Critical Apparatus14ὀσμᾶται, ὁ δ' ἄνθρωπος ἀναπνέων μέν, μὴ ἀναπνέων δὲ‎

Critical Apparatus15ἀλλ' ἐκπνέων ἢ κατέχων τὸ πνεῦμα οὐκ ὀσμᾶται, οὔτε‎

Critical Apparatus16πόρρωθεν οὔτ' ἐγγύθεν, οὐδ' ἂν ἐπὶ τοῦ μυκτῆρος ἐντὸς τεθῇ·‎

17καὶ τὸ μὲν ἐπ' αὐτῷ τιθέμενον τῷ αἰσθητηρίῳ ἀναίσθητον‎

Critical Apparatus18εἶναι κοινὸν πάντων, ἀλλὰ τὸ ἄνευ τοῦ ἀναπνεῖν μὴ αἰσθά-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 19νεσθαι ἴδιον ἐπὶ τῶν ἀνθρώπων· δῆλον δὲ πειρωμένοις· ὥστε‎

Critical Apparatus Link 20τὰ ἄναιμα, ἐπειδὴ οὐκ ἀναπνέουσιν, ἑτέραν ἄν τιν' αἴσθησιν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 21ἔχοι παρὰ τὰς λεγομένας. ἀλλ' ἀδύνατον, εἴπερ τῆς ὀσμῆς‎

Critical Apparatus22αἰσθάνεται· ἡ γὰρ τοῦ ὀσφραντοῦ αἴσθησις καὶ δυσώδους‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23καὶ εὐώδους ὄσφρησίς ἐστιν. ἔτι δὲ καὶ φθειρόμενα φαίνεται‎

Critical Apparatus24ὑπὸ τῶν ἰσχυρῶν ὀσμῶν ὑφ' ὧνπερ ἄνθρωπος, οἷον ἀσφάλτου‎

Link 25καὶ θείου καὶ τῶν τοιούτων. ὀσφραίνεσθαι μὲν οὖν ἀναγ-‎

Editor’s Note26καῖον, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἀναπνέοντα. ἔοικε δὲ τοῖς ἀνθρώποις δια-‎

27φέρειν τὸ αἰσθητήριον τοῦτο πρὸς τὸ τῶν ἄλλων ζῴων, ὥσπερ‎

Critical Apparatus28τὰ ὄμματα πρὸς τὰ τῶν σκληροφθάλμων—τὰ μὲν γὰρ ἔχει‎

Critical Apparatus29φράγμα καὶ ὥσπερ ἔλυτρον τὰ βλέφαρα, ἃ μὴ κινήσας‎

pg 113Critical Apparatus30μηδ' ἀνασπάσας οὐχ ὁρᾷ· τὰ δὲ σκληρόφθαλμα οὐδὲν‎

Critical Apparatus31ἔχει τοιοῦτον, ἀλλ' εὐθέως ὁρᾷ τὰ γινόμενα ἐν τῷ δια-‎

32φανεῖ—οὕτως οὖν καὶ τὸ ὀσφραντικὸν αἰσθητήριον τοῖς μὲν‎

422a1ἀκαλυφὲς εἶναι, ὥσπερ τὸ ὄμμα, τοῖς δὲ τὸν ἀέρα δεχο-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 2μένοις ἔχειν ἐπικάλυμμα, ὃ ἀναπνεόντων ἀποκαλύπτεται‎,

Critical Apparatus Link 3διευρυνομένων τῶν φλεβίων καὶ τῶν πόρων. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο‎

4τὰ ἀναπνέοντα οὐκ ὀσμᾶται ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ· ἀναγκαῖον γὰρ‎

Critical Apparatus5ὀσφρανθῆναι ἀναπνεύσαντα, τοῦτο δὲ ποιεῖν ἐν τῷ ὑγρῷ‎

Editor’s Note Link 6ἀδύνατον. ἔστι δ' ἡ ὀσμὴ τοῦ ξηροῦ (ὥσπερ ὁ χυμὸς τοῦ ὑγροῦ‎),

Critical Apparatus7τὸ δὲ ὀσφραντικὸν αἰσθητήριον δυνάμει τοιοῦτον‎.

10 Editor’s Note Link 8Τὸ δὲ γευστόν ἐστιν ἁπτόν τι· καὶ τοῦτ' αἴτιον τοῦ μὴ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus9εἶναι αἰσθητὸν διὰ τοῦ μεταξὺ ἀλλοτρίου ὄντος σώματος·‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 10οὐδὲ γὰρ τῇ ἁφῇ. καὶ τὸ σῶμα δὲ ἐν ᾧ ὁ χυμός, τὸ γευ-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 11στόν, ἐν ὑγρῷ ὡς ὕλῃ· τοῦτο δ' ἁπτόν τι. διὸ κἂν εἰ‎

Critical Apparatus12ἐν ὕδατι ἦμεν, ᾐσθανόμεθ' ἂν ἐμβληθέντος τοῦ γλυκέος‎,

13οὐκ ἦν δ' ἂν ἡ αἴσθησις ἡμῖν διὰ τοῦ μεταξύ, ἀλλὰ τῷ‎

Critical Apparatus14μιχθῆναι τῷ ὑγρῷ, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ ποτοῦ. τὸ δὲ χρῶμα‎

Critical Apparatus15οὐχ οὕτως ὁρᾶται τῷ μίγνυσθαι, οὐδὲ ταῖς ἀπορροίαις. ὡς‎

Critical Apparatus16μὲν οὖν τὸ μεταξὺ οὐθὲν ἔστιν· ὡς δὲ χρῶμα τὸ ὁρατόν, οὕτω‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17τὸ γευστὸν ὁ χυμός. οὐθὲν δὲ ποιεῖ χυμοῦ αἴσθησιν ἄνευ‎

Critical Apparatus18ὑγρότητος, ἀλλ' ἔχει ἐνεργείᾳ ἢ δυνάμει ὑγρότητα, οἷον τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus19ἁλμυρόν· εὔτηκτόν τε γὰρ αὐτὸ καὶ συντηκτικὸν γλώττης‎.

Critical Apparatus Link 20ὥσπερ δὲ καὶ ἡ ὄψις ἐστὶ τοῦ τε ὁρατοῦ καὶ τοῦ ἀοράτου (τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21γὰρ σκότος ἀόρατον, κρίνει δὲ καὶ τοῦτο ἡ ὄψις), ἔτι τε τοῦ‎

22λίαν λαμπροῦ (καὶ γὰρ τοῦτο ἀόρατον, ἄλλον δὲ τρόπον τοῦ‎

pg 114Critical Apparatus23σκότους), ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἡ ἀκοὴ ψόφου τε καὶ σιγῆς, ὧν‎

24τὸ μὲν ἀκουστὸν τὸ δ' οὐκ ἀκουστόν, καὶ μεγάλου ψόφου‎

Critical Apparatus25καθάπερ ἡ ὄψις τοῦ λαμπροῦ (ὥσπερ γὰρ ὁ μικρὸς ψόφος‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus26ἀνήκουστος, τρόπον τινὰ καὶ ὁ μέγας τε καὶ ὁ βίαιος), ἀόρα-‎

27τον δὲ τὸ μὲν ὅλως λέγεται, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπ' ἄλλων τὸ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus28ἀδύνατον, τὸ δ' ἐὰν πεφυκὸς μὴ ἔχῃ ἢ φαύλως, ὥσπερ‎

Critical Apparatus29τὸ ἄπουν καὶ τὸ ἀπύρηνον—οὕτω δὴ καὶ ἡ γεῦσις τοῦ γευστοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus30τε καὶ ἀγεύστου, τοῦτο δὲ τὸ μικρὸν ἢ φαῦλον ἔχον χυμὸν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus31ἢ φθαρτικὸν τῆς γεύσεως. δοκεῖ δ' εἶναι ἀρχὴ τὸ ποτὸν καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus32ἄποτον (γεῦσις γάρ τις ἀμφοτέρου· ἀλλὰ τοῦ μὲν φαύλη‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus33καὶ φθαρτική [τῆς γεύσεως], τοῦ δὲ κατὰ φύσιν)· ἔστι δὲ κοι-‎

Link 34νὸν ἁφῆς καὶ γεύσεως τὸ ποτόν. ἐπεὶ δ' ὑγρὸν τὸ γευστόν‎,

422bCritical Apparatus Link 1ἀνάγκη καὶ τὸ αἰσθητήριον αὐτοῦ μήτε ὑγρὸν εἶναι ἐντελε-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 2χείᾳ μήτε ἀδύνατον ὑγραίνεσθαι· πάσχει γάρ τι ἡ γεῦ-‎

Critical Apparatus3σις ὑπὸ τοῦ γευστοῦ, ᾗ γευστόν. ἀναγκαῖον ἄρα ὑγρανθῆναι‎

Critical Apparatus4τὸ δυνάμενον μὲν ὑγραίνεσθαι σωζόμενον, μὴ ὑγρὸν δέ, τὸ‎

5γευστικὸν αἰσθητήριον. σημεῖον δὲ τὸ μήτε κατάξηρον οὖσαν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6τὴν γλῶτταν αἰσθάνεσθαι μήτε λίαν ὑγράν· αὕτη γὰρ ἁφῇ‎

Critical Apparatus7γίνεται τοῦ πρώτου ὑγροῦ, ὥσπερ ὅταν προγευματίσας τις‎

Critical Apparatus8ἰσχυροῦ χυμοῦ γεύηται ἑτέρου, καὶ οἷον τοῖς κάμνουσι πικρὰ‎

Critical Apparatus9πάντα φαίνεται διὰ τὸ τῇ γλώττῃ πλήρει τοιαύτης ὑγρό-‎

Editor’s Note Link 10τητος αἰσθάνεσθαι. τὰ δ' εἴδη τῶν χυμῶν, ὥσπερ καὶ ἐπὶ‎

11τῶν χρωμάτων, ἁπλᾶ μὲν τἀναντία, τὸ γλυκὺ καὶ τὸ‎

12πικρόν, ἐχόμενα δὲ τοῦ μὲν τὸ λιπαρόν, τοῦ δὲ τὸ ἁλμυρόν·‎

Critical Apparatus13μεταξὺ δὲ τούτων τό τε δριμὺ καὶ τὸ αὐστηρὸν καὶ στρυφνὸν‎

14καὶ ὀξύ· σχεδὸν γὰρ αὗται δοκοῦσιν εἶναι διαφοραὶ χυμῶν‎.

pg 115Critical Apparatus Link 15ὥστε τὸ γευστικόν ἐστι τὸ δυνάμει τοιοῦτον, γευστὸν δὲ τὸ‎

16ποιητικὸν ἐντελεχείᾳ αὐτοῦ‎.

11 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus17Περὶ δὲ τοῦ ἁπτοῦ καὶ περὶ ἁφῆς ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος· εἰ γὰρ ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 18ἁφὴ μὴ μία ἐστὶν αἴσθησις ἀλλὰ πλείους, ἀναγκαῖον καὶ τὰ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 19ἁπτὰ αἰσθητὰ πλείω εἶναι. ἔχει δ' ἀπορίαν πότερον πλείους‎

20εἰσὶν ἢ μία, καὶ τί τὸ αἰσθητήριον τὸ τοῦ ἁπτικοῦ, πότερον‎

Critical Apparatus21ἡ σὰρξ καὶ ἐν τοῖς ἄλλοις τὸ ἀνάλογον, ἢ οὔ, ἀλλὰ τοῦτο‎

22μέν ἐστι τὸ μεταξύ, τὸ δὲ πρῶτον αἰσθητήριον ἄλλο τί‎

Critical Apparatus Link 23ἐστιν ἐντός. πᾶσα γὰρ αἴσθησις μιᾶς ἐναντιώσεως εἶναι‎

Critical Apparatus24δοκεῖ, οἷον ὄψις λευκοῦ καὶ μέλανος, καὶ ἀκοὴ ὀξέος καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus25βαρέος, καὶ γεῦσις πικροῦ καὶ γλυκέος· ἐν δὲ τῷ ἁπτῷ‎

Critical Apparatus26πολλαὶ ἔνεισιν ἐναντιώσεις, θερμὸν ψυχρόν, ξηρὸν ὑγρόν‎,

Editor’s Note Link 27σκληρὸν μαλακόν, καὶ τῶν ἄλλων ὅσα τοιαῦτα. ἔχει δέ‎

Critical Apparatus28τινα λύσιν πρός γε ταύτην τὴν ἀπορίαν, ὅτι καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν‎

Critical Apparatus29ἄλλων αἰσθήσεων εἰσὶν ἐναντιώσεις πλείους, οἷον ἐν φωνῇ οὐ‎

Critical Apparatus30μόνον ὀξύτης καὶ βαρύτης, ἀλλὰ καὶ μέγεθος καὶ μικρότης‎,

Critical Apparatus31καὶ λειότης καὶ τραχύτης φωνῆς, καὶ τοιαῦθ' ἕτερα. εἰσὶ δὲ καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus32περὶ χρῶμα διαφοραὶ τοιαῦται ἕτεραι. ἀλλὰ τί τὸ ἓν τὸ ὑπο-‎

Critical Apparatus33κείμενον, ὥσπερ ἀκοῇ ψόφος, οὕτω τῇ ἁφῇ, οὐκ ἔστιν ἔνδηλον‎.

Editor’s Note34πότερον δ' ἐστὶ τὸ αἰσθητήριον ἐντός, ἢ οὔ, ἀλλ' εὐ-‎

423aCritical Apparatus1θέως ἡ σάρξ, οὐδὲν δοκεῖ σημεῖον εἶναι τὸ γίνεσθαι τὴν αἴ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus2σθησιν ἅμα θιγγανομένων. καὶ γὰρ νῦν εἴ τίς ⟨τι⟩ περὶ τὴν σάρκα‎

3περιτείνειεν οἷον ὑμένα ποιήσας, ὁμοίως τὴν αἴσθησιν εὐθέως‎

Critical Apparatus4ἁψάμενος ἐνσημανεῖ· καίτοι δῆλον ὡς οὐκ ἔστιν ἐν τούτῳ‎

Critical Apparatus5τὸ αἰσθητήριον (εἰ δὲ καὶ συμφυὲς γένοιτο, θᾶττον ἔτι δι-‎

pg 116Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus6ικνοῖτ' ἂν ἡ αἴσθησις)· διὸ τὸ τοιοῦτον μόριον τοῦ σώματος ἔοι-‎

Critical Apparatus7κεν οὕτως ἔχειν ὥσπερ ἂν εἰ κύκλῳ ἡμῖν περιεπεφύκει ὁ‎

Critical Apparatus8ἀήρ· ἐδοκοῦμεν γὰρ ἂν ἑνί τινι αἰσθάνεσθαι καὶ ψόφου καὶ‎

Critical Apparatus9χρώματος καὶ ὀσμῆς, καὶ μία τις αἴσθησις εἶναι ὄψις ἀκοὴ‎

Critical Apparatus10ὄσφρησις. νῦν δὲ διὰ τὸ διωρίσθαι δι' οὗ γίνονται αἱ κινήσεις‎,

Critical Apparatus11φανερὰ τὰ εἰρημένα αἰσθητήρια ἕτερα ὄντα. ἐπὶ δὲ τῆς ἁφῆς‎

Critical Apparatus12τοῦτο νῦν ἄδηλον· ἐξ ἀέρος μὲν γὰρ ἢ ὕδατος ἀδύνατον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13συστῆναι τὸ ἔμψυχον σῶμα· δεῖ γάρ τι στερεὸν εἶναι· λείπεται‎

Critical Apparatus14δὴ μικτὸν ἐκ τῆς καὶ τούτων εἶναι, οἷον βούλεται εἶναι ἡ σὰρξ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus15καὶ τὸ ἀνάλογον· ὥστε ἀναγκαῖον τὸ σῶμα εἶναι τὸ μεταξὺ τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus16ἁπτικοῦ προσπεφυκός, δι' οὗ γίνονται αἱ αἰσθήσεις πλείους οὖ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus17σαι. δηλοῖ δ' ὅτι πλείους ἡ ἐπὶ τῆς γλώττης ἁφή· ἁπάντων‎

Critical Apparatus18γὰρ τῶν ἁπτῶν αἰσθάνεται κατὰ τὸ αὐτὸ μόριον καὶ χυμοῦ‎.

Critical Apparatus19εἰ μὲν οὖν καὶ ἡ ἄλλη σὰρξ ᾐσθάνετο τοῦ χυμοῦ, ἐδόκει ἂν ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus20αὐτὴ καὶ μία εἶναι αἴσθησις ἡ γεῦσις καὶ ἡ ἁφή· νῦν δὲ‎

21δύο διὰ τὸ μὴ ἀντιστρέφειν‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 22ἀπορήσειε δ' ἄν τις, εἰ πᾶν σῶμα βάθος ἔχει, τοῦτο δ' ἐστὶ‎

Critical Apparatus23τὸ τρίτον μέγεθος, ὧν δ' ἐστὶ δύο σωμάτων μεταξὺ σῶμά τι‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus24οὐκ ἐνδέχεται ταῦτα ἀλλήλων ἅπτεσθαι, τὸ δ' ὑγρὸν οὐκ ἔστιν‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus25ἄνευ σώματος, οὐδὲ τὸ διερόν, ἀλλ' ἀναγκαῖον ὕδωρ εἶναι ἢ ἔχειν‎

26ὕδωρ, τὰ δὲ ἁπτόμενα ἀλλήλων ἐν τῷ ὕδατι, μὴ ξηρῶν τῶν ἄκρων‎

Critical Apparatus27ὄντων, ἀναγκαῖον ὕδωρ ἔχειν μεταξύ, οὗ ἀνάπλεα τὰ ἔσχατα‎,

Critical Apparatus28εἰ δὲ τοῦτ' ἀληθές, ἀδύνατον ἅψασθαι ἄλλο ἄλλου ἐν ὕδατι‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀέρι (ὁμοίως γὰρ ἔχει ὁ ἀὴρ‎

Critical Apparatus30πρὸς τὰ ἐν αὐτῷ καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ πρὸς τὰ ἐν τῷ ὕδατι, λαν-‎

Critical Apparatus31θάνει δὲ μᾶλλον ἡμᾶς, ὥσπερ καὶ τὰ ἐν τῷ ὕδατι ζῷα‎

pg 117423bCritical Apparatus1εἰ διερὸν διεροῦ ἅπτεται‎)—πότερον οὖν πάντων ὁμοίως‎

2ἐστὶν ἡ αἴσθησις, ἢ ἄλλων ἄλλως, καθάπερ νῦν δοκεῖ ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus3μὲν γεῦσις καὶ ἡ ἁφὴ τῷ ἅπτεσθαι, αἱ δ' ἄλλαι ἄποθεν‎.

Editor’s Note4τὸ δ' οὐκ ἔστιν, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ σκληρὸν καὶ τὸ μαλακὸν δι'‎

Critical Apparatus5ἑτέρων αἰσθανόμεθα, ὥσπερ καὶ τὸ ψοφητικὸν καὶ τὸ ὁρατὸν‎

Critical Apparatus6καὶ τὸ ὀσφραντόν· ἀλλὰ τὰ μὲν πόρρωθεν, τὰ δ' ἐγγύθεν, διὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 7λανθάνει· ἐπεὶ αἰσθανόμεθά γε πάντων διὰ τοῦ μέσου, ἀλλ'‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus8ἐπὶ τούτων λανθάνει. καίτοι καθάπερ εἴπομεν καὶ πρότερον‎,

Critical Apparatus9κἂν εἰ δι' ὑμένος αἰσθανοίμεθα τῶν ἁπτῶν ἁπάντων λανθά-‎

10νοντος ὅτι διείργει, ὁμοίως ἂν ἔχοιμεν ὥσπερ καὶ νῦν ἐν‎

Critical Apparatus11τῷ ὕδατι καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀέρι· δοκοῦμεν γὰρ νῦν αὐτῶν ἅπτεσθαι‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 12καὶ οὐδὲν εἶναι διὰ μέσου. ἀλλὰ διαφέρει τὸ ἁπτὸν τῶν ὁρα-‎

Critical Apparatus13τῶν καὶ τῶν ψοφητικῶν, ὅτι ἐκείνων μὲν αἰσθανόμεθα τῷ‎

14τὸ μεταξὺ ποιεῖν τι ἡμᾶς, τῶν δὲ ἁπτῶν οὐχ ὑπὸ τοῦ μετα-‎

Link 15ξὺ ἀλλ' ἅμα τῷ μεταξύ, ὥσπερ ὁ δι' ἀσπίδος πληγείς·‎

Critical Apparatus16οὐ γὰρ ἡ ἀσπὶς πληγεῖσα ἐπάταξεν, ἀλλ' ἅμ' ἄμφω‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17συνέβη πληγῆναι. ὅλως δ' ἔοικεν ἡ σὰρξ καὶ ἡ γλῶττα, ὡς‎

Critical Apparatus18ὁ ἀὴρ καὶ τὸ ὕδωρ πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν καὶ τὴν ἀκοὴν καὶ τὴν‎

19ὄσφρησιν ἔχουσιν, οὕτως ἔχειν πρὸς τὸ αἰσθητήριον ὥσπερ‎

Critical Apparatus20ἐκείνων ἕκαστον. αὐτοῦ δὲ τοῦ αἰσθητηρίου ἁπτομένου‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus21οὔτ' ἐκεῖ οὔτ' ἐνταῦθα γένοιτ' ἂν αἴσθησις, οἷον εἴ τις σῶμά‎

Critical Apparatus22τι λευκὸν ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄμματος θείη τὸ ἔσχατον. ᾗ καὶ δῆλον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus23ὅτι ἐντὸς τὸ τοῦ ἁπτοῦ αἰσθητικόν. οὕτω γὰρ ἂν συμβαίνοι‎

Critical Apparatus24ὅπερ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων· ἐπιτιθεμένων γὰρ ἐπὶ τὸ αἰσθητή-‎

25ριον οὐκ αἰσθάνεται, ἐπὶ δὲ τὴν σάρκα ἐπιτιθεμένων αἰσθά-‎

Critical Apparatus26νεται· ὥστε τὸ μεταξὺ τοῦ ἁπτικοῦ ἡ σάρξ‎.

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 27ἁπταὶ μὲν οὖν εἰσὶν αἱ διαφοραὶ τοῦ σώματος ᾗ σῶμα· λέγω‎

Critical Apparatus28δὲ διαφορὰς αἳ τὰ στοιχεῖα διορίζουσι, θερμὸν ψυχρόν, ξηρὸν‎

pg 118Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus29ὑγρόν, περὶ ὧν εἰρήκαμεν πρότερον ἐν τοῖς περὶ τῶν στοιχείων‎.

Critical Apparatus30τὸ δὲ αἰσθητήριον αὐτῶν τὸ ἁπτικόν, καὶ ἐν ᾧ ἡ καλουμένη‎

Critical Apparatus Link 31ἁφὴ ὑπάρχει αἴσθησις πρώτῳ, τὸ δυνάμει τοιοῦτόν ἐστι μόριον·‎

424aCritical Apparatus1τὸ γὰρ αἰσθάνεσθαι πάσχειν τι ἐστίν· ὥστε τὸ ποιοῦν, οἷον αὐτὸ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus2ἐνεργείᾳ, τοιοῦτον ἐκεῖνο ποιεῖ, δυνάμει ὄν. διὸ τοῦ ὁμοίως‎

Critical Apparatus Link 3θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ, ἢ σκληροῦ καὶ μαλακοῦ, οὐκ αἰσθανόμεθα‎,

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 4ἀλλὰ τῶν ὑπερβολῶν, ὡς τῆς αἰσθήσεως οἷον μεσότητός τινος‎

Critical Apparatus Link 5οὔσης τῆς ἐν τοῖς αἰσθητοῖς ἐναντιώσεως. καὶ διὰ τοῦτο κρίνει‎

Critical Apparatus Link 6τὰ αἰσθητά. τὸ γὰρ μέσον κριτικόν· γίνεται γὰρ πρὸς ἑκάτερον‎

7αὐτῶν θάτερον τῶν ἄκρων· καὶ δεῖ ὥσπερ τὸ μέλλον αἰσθή-‎

8σεσθαι λευκοῦ καὶ μέλανος μηδέτερον αὐτῶν εἶναι ἐνεργείᾳ‎,

Critical Apparatus9δυνάμει δ' ἄμφω (οὕτω δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων), καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus10ἁφῆς μήτε θερμὸν μήτε ψυχρόν. ἔτι δ' ὥσπερ ὁρατοῦ καὶ‎

11ἀοράτου ἦν πως ἡ ὄψις, ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ αἱ λοιπαὶ τῶν ἀντι-‎

Critical Apparatus Link 12κειμένων, οὕτω καὶ ἡ ἁφὴ τοῦ ἁπτοῦ καὶ ἀνάπτου· ἄναπτον‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus13δ' ἐστὶ τό τε μικρὰν ἔχον πάμπαν διαφορὰν τῶν ἁπτῶν‎,

14οἷον πέπονθεν ὁ ἀήρ, καὶ τῶν ἁπτῶν αἱ ὑπερβολαί, ὥσπερ‎

15τὰ φθαρτικά. καθ' ἑκάστην μὲν οὖν τῶν αἰσθήσεων εἴρηται‎

16τύπῳ‎.

12 Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 17Καθόλου δὲ περὶ πάσης αἰσθήσεως δεῖ λαβεῖν ὅτι ἡ‎

Critical Apparatus18μὲν αἴσθησίς ἐστι τὸ δεκτικὸν τῶν αἰσθητῶν εἰδῶν ἄνευ τῆς‎

Critical Apparatus19ὕλης, οἷον ὁ κηρὸς τοῦ δακτυλίου ἄνευ τοῦ σιδήρου καὶ τοῦ‎

Critical Apparatus20χρυσοῦ δέχεται τὸ σημεῖον, λαμβάνει δὲ τὸ χρυσοῦν ἢ τὸ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 21χαλκοῦν σημεῖον, ἀλλ' οὐχ ᾗ χρυσὸς ἢ χαλκός· ὁμοίως δὲ‎

Link 22καὶ ἡ αἴσθησις ἑκάστου ὑπὸ τοῦ ἔχοντος χρῶμα ἢ χυμὸν ἢ‎

Critical Apparatus23ψόφον πάσχει, ἀλλ' οὐχ ᾗ ἕκαστον ἐκείνων λέγεται, ἀλλ'‎

Critical Apparatus Link 24ᾗ τοιονδί, καὶ κατὰ τὸν λόγον. αἰσθητήριον δὲ πρῶτον ἐν‎

Critical Apparatus Link 25ᾧ ἡ τοιαύτη δύναμις. ἔστι μὲν οὖν ταὐτόν, τὸ δ' εἶναι ἕτερον·‎

pg 119Critical Apparatus Link 26μέγεθος μὲν γὰρ ἄν τι εἴη τὸ αἰσθανόμενον, οὐ μὴν τό‎

Critical Apparatus27γε αἰσθητικῷ εἶναι οὐδ' ἡ αἴσθησις μέγεθός ἐστιν, ἀλλὰ λό-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 28γος τις καὶ δύναμις ἐκείνου. φανερὸν δ' ἐκ τούτων καὶ διὰ‎

Critical Apparatus Link 29τί ποτε τῶν αἰσθητῶν αἱ ὑπερβολαὶ φθείρουσι τὰ αἰσθη-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus30τήρια (ἐὰν γὰρ ᾖ ἰσχυροτέρα τοῦ αἰσθητηρίου ἡ κίνησις‎,

Critical Apparatus31λύεται ὁ λόγος—τοῦτο δ' ἦν ἡ αἴσθησις—ὥσπερ καὶ ἡ συμ-‎

Critical Apparatus32φωνία καὶ ὁ τόνος κρουομένων σφόδρα τῶν χορδῶν), καὶ διὰ‎

Editor’s Note33τί ποτε τὰ φυτὰ οὐκ αἰσθάνεται, ἔχοντά τι μόριον ψυχι-‎

Critical Apparatus34κὸν καὶ πάσχοντά τι ὑπὸ τῶν ἁπτῶν (καὶ γὰρ ψύχε-‎

424bEditor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 1ται καὶ θερμαίνεται)· αἴτιον γὰρ τὸ μὴ ἔχειν μεσότητα, μηδὲ‎

Critical Apparatus2τοιαύτην ἀρχὴν οἵαν τὰ εἴδη δέχεσθαι τῶν αἰσθητῶν, ἀλλὰ‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus3πάσχειν μετὰ τῆς ὕλης‎.

3                                                 ἀπορήσειε δ' ἄν τις εἰ πάθοι ἄν‎

Critical Apparatus4τι ὑπ' ὀσμῆς τὸ ἀδύνατον ὀσφρανθῆναι, ἢ ὑπὸ χρώματος τὸ‎

Link 5μὴ δυνάμενον ἰδεῖν· ὁμοίως δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων. εἰ δὲ‎

Critical Apparatus6τὸ ὀσφραντὸν ὀσμή, εἴ τι ποιεῖ, τὴν ὄσφρησιν ἡ ὀσμὴ ποιεῖ·‎

Critical Apparatus7ὥστε τῶν ἀδυνάτων ὀσφρανθῆναι οὐθὲν οἷόν τε πάσχειν ὑπ'‎

Critical Apparatus8ὀσμῆς (ὁ δ' αὐτὸς λόγος καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων)· οὐδὲ τῶν δυ-‎

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus9νατῶν, ἀλλ' ⟨ἢ⟩ ᾗ αἰσθητικὸν ἕκαστον. ἅμα δὲ δῆλον καὶ οὕτως·‎

Link 10οὔτε γὰρ φῶς καὶ σκότος οὔτε ψόφος οὔτε ὀσμὴ οὐδὲν ποιεῖ‎

Critical Apparatus11τὰ σώματα, ἀλλ' ἐν οἷς ἐστίν, οἷον ἀὴρ ὁ μετὰ βροντῆς‎

Critical Apparatus12διίστησι τὸ ξύλον. ἀλλὰ τὰ ἁπτὰ καὶ οἱ χυμοὶ ποιοῦσιν· εἰ‎

Critical Apparatus13γὰρ μή, ὑπὸ τίνος ἂν πάσχοι τὰ ἄψυχα καὶ ἀλλοιοῖτο‎;

Editor’s Note Critical Apparatus Link 14ἆρ' οὖν κἀκεῖνα ποιήσει; ἢ οὐ πᾶν σῶμα παθητικὸν ὑπ' ὀσμῆς‎

Critical Apparatus15καὶ ψόφου, καὶ τὰ πάσχοντα ἀόριστα, καὶ οὐ μένει, οἷον‎

Critical Apparatus16ἀήρ (ὄζει γὰρ ὥσπερ παθών τι); τί οὖν ἐστι τὸ ὀσμᾶσθαι‎

pg 120Critical Apparatus17παρὰ τὸ πάσχειν τι; ἢ τὸ μὲν ὀσμᾶσθαι αἰσθάνεσθαι, ὁ δ'‎

Critical Apparatus18ἀὴρ παθὼν ταχέως αἰσθητὸς γίνεται;‎

Notes Settings

Critical Apparatus

412^a3 τὰ … πρότερον (προτέρων‎ VyS^lΦ‎^l) … 4 ἐπανίωμεν‎ CVeyS^l^cΘ‎Φ‎^l: ἐπεὶ δὲ (ἐπειδὴ‎ Ρ‎Σ) τὰ παραδεδομένα περὶ ψυχῆς παρὰ τῶν ἄλλων ἐφʼ ὅσον (ὅσων‎ X) ἕκαστος ἀπεφήνατο (+τῶν‎ EPΣ) πρότερον (πρῶτον‎ W) εἴρηται σχεδὸν νῦν ὥσπερ ἐξ ἀρχῆς (ὑπαρχῆς‎ SΣ‎) πάλιν ἐπανίωμεν‎ EPSUWXΣ‎

Editor’s Note

412^a3. Having discussed earlier opinions about soul, let us now try to give the account of it that best fits all its varieties. Substance is one of the classes of being, and it includes matter (which is not in itself an individual thing), form (which gives individuality), and that which is produced by the union of these. Matter is a potentiality, form an actuality, and that in two ways, of which the possession of knowledge and the exercise of it are examples.

Critical Apparatus

4 εἴρηται‎ e², cf. Θ‎ 38. 35

Critical Apparatus

5 τίς ἂν εἴη‎ CEPVeyΘ‎Σ‎: τί (τίς‎ W) ἐστιν‎ SUWX

κοινότατος‎ CEPSVeyS^pΘ‎Σ‎: κοινὸς‎ UWX

Critical Apparatus

6 δὲ‎ V

γένος ἕν τι‎ CPUVeyA^lS^lΘ‎Σ‎: ἕν τι γένος‎ SX: γένος‎ post ὄντων‎ W ὄντων‎ CUPeS^lΘ‎, cf. Σ‎ 40. 17: ἄλλων ὄντων‎ A^l cf. Ε‎

Editor’s Note

412^a6–20. λέγομεν … ἔχοντος‎. Part of the difficulty of this argument, for a non-Greek reader, is that we have no word which exactly corresponds to οὐσία‎. The word 'substance' is often used in the first of the three senses assigned to οὐσία‎ in ll. 7–9, often in the third, but hardly ever (and then only by a metaphor) in the second, for which we should rather use the word 'essence'.

Editor’s Note

6. ἕν τι τῶν ὄντων‎, i.e. one of the ten categories which A. recognizes.

Critical Apparatus

7 ὡς‎ om. Φ‎^l

αὑτὸ‎ VΦ‎^l: +μὲν‎ CPSUXeΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

8 μορφὴ‎ VA^l

Critical Apparatus

9 ἔτι δʼ‎ X

δύναμις‎ UCPWeS^lΣ‎: δυνάμει‎ Eγ‎Φ‎^p, cf. S^p 84. 2, Θ‎ 34. 7, 10

Critical Apparatus

10 διττῶς‎ W

Editor’s Note

10. ἐντελέχεια‎. On this word cf. 402^a26 n.

Critical Apparatus

11 ὡς τὸ θεωρεῖν‎ UEWS^lΘ‎Φ‎^l: ὡς θεωρία‎ Pγ‎Σ‎: θεωρεῖν‎ Ce εἶναι μάλιστα‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

11. The things that are most generally recognized to be substances are bodies, and especially natural bodies, out of which all others are made. Of natural bodies some have and some have not life, i.e. self-nutrition, growth, and decay. Thus every living natural body is a substance, and one of the complex kind.

Critical Apparatus

12 ἄλλων+καὶ‎ S

Editor’s Note

12. ταῦτα … ἀρχαί‎, 'for natural bodies are the materials of which artefacta are made'.

Editor’s Note

13. τὰ δ'‎, i.e. the four elements and certain compounds of them, which, unlike flesh and blood, are not complex enough to form a basis for soul.

Critical Apparatus

14 λέγομεν‎ UCWeS^lΦ‎^l: λέγω‎ PyΣ‎ αὑτοῦ‎ Ρ‎Σ‎: ἑαυτοῦ Θ: αὐτοῦ‎ CeSUXS^l^pΦ‎^l^p: αὐτῆς‎ V

τε‎ post αὔξησιν‎ SX: om. U

Critical Apparatus

15 ζωῆς‎+αἱ‎ Ρ‎

οὐσία ἂν εἴη‎ CPVeΣ‎, cf. Θ‎ 39. 32: om. S^lU¹X

Critical Apparatus

16 δʼ‎ om. X

ἐπεὶ δὲ‎ UPWΣ‎Φ‎^l ἐπειδὴ‎ Ce¹y ἐπεὶ δὴ‎ ut vid. Θ‎

καὶ … τοιόνδε‎ scripsi: καὶ σῶμα τοιόνδε‎ Ce: καὶ σῶμα τοιονδί‎ y: σῶμα τοιόνδει‎ Ρ‎¹: σῶμα καὶ τοιονδὶ τοῦτο‎ UVWX: καὶ σῶμα καὶ τοιονδὶ τοῦτο‎ S: σῶμα καὶ τοιόνδε‎ Φ‎^l: σῶμα καὶ τοιόνδε σῶμα‎ Σ‎

Editor’s Note

16. Since such a body is both a body and of a particular kind, i.e. a living body, the soul is not a body (a body not being a predicate but a subject or matter). The soul, therefore, is a substance in the sense of being the form of a natural body which potentially has life. Now a substance is an actuality; therefore the soul is the actuality of such a body.

Editor’s Note

16–20. ἐπεὶ … ἔχοντος‎. To modern readers the existence of a difference between body and soul is so obvious that any attempt to prove that soul is not a body (l. 17) must seem rather strange; but to A. it seemed to need proving. In trying to understand his proof we must first establish the text. In l. 16 the reading usually adopted is ἐπεὶ δ' ἐστὶ καὶ σῶμα τοιόνδε‎, but the καί‎ is puzzling, and it seems better to read (after ἐστὶ‎) καὶ σῶμα καὶ τοιόνδε (σῶμα καὶ τοιονδὶ τοῦτο‎ UVWX, καὶ σῶμα καὶ τοιονδὶ τοῦτο‎ S, σῶμα καὶ τοιόνδε‎ Φ‎^l, σῶμα καὶ τοιόνδε σῶμα‎ Soph.). With this reading we find A. establishing the existence of two elements, body and soul, in the living thing. In l. 17 he infers that soul is not a body, and the reason he gives (ll. 17–19) is that body is not an attribute, but a subject. The missing but easily supplied part of the proof is 'whereas soul (or besouledness) is, as we have seen, not a substance, but an attribute'. Put summarily, the argument in ll. 17–19 is 'soul cannot be a body, because it is that the possession of which distinguishes a living body from a lifeless one'.

Critical Apparatus

17 ζωὴν γὰρ] τὸ ζωὴν‎ Σ‎Φ‎^l, cf. Θ‎ 39. 33

ἐνείη τὸ σῶμα ψυχῇ‎ Förster

σῶμα‎ SUW, cf. Θ‎ 40. 4: τὸ σῶμα‎ CPVXeyΦ‎^l^c, cf. Σ‎ 41. 18‎

ἡ‎ UWyA^pΦ‎^l^c, cf. Θ‎ 40. 4: om. CPe, cf. Σ‎ 41. 19

Editor’s Note

19–20. ἀναγκαῖον … ἔχοντος‎. The question has been discussed why A. says the soul is the οὐσία ὡς εἶδος‎ of a natural body which potentially has life, when in fact a natural body which has a soul actually has life. The meaning clearly is that the soul is the form of that which without it has life potentially (i.e. has organs suitable for the maintenance of life), and with it has life actually.

Critical Apparatus

21 τοιούτου … ἐντελέχεια‎ om. V

Editor’s Note

21. ἡ … σώματος ἐντελέχεια‎. It may be asked what is gained by the substitution, in the definition of soul, of ἐντελέχεια‎ for οὐσία ὡς εἶδος‎. The answer is 'only the intimation that it is by the possession of soul that certain natural bodies, i.e. living bodies, have the fullness of their being, that which essentially distinguishes them from other natural bodies (the four elements and their lifeless compounds)'.

Editor’s Note

22. But 'actuality' is used in two senses, of which knowledge and the exercise of it are examples. The soul, then, is an actuality in the former sense; for both sleep and waking involve the presence of the soul, and of these states waking corresponds to actual thinking, sleep to the possession of knowledge without exercising it, and of these the latter comes the earlier in the individual knower; therefore the soul is the first actuality of a natural body which potentially has life.

Critical Apparatus

24 ἔσται‎ V

Critical Apparatus

26 δὲ‎ UPWS^lΣ‎Φ‎^l: δὴ‎ Cey

τῆς γενέσεως‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

26–27. προτέρα … ἐπιστήμη‎, i.e. the possession of knowledge 'at the back of one's mind' is prior to the act of knowing in the learner, though it is preceded by the exercise of knowledge by his teacher.

Critical Apparatus

27 ἡ‎¹ om. y

ἡ‎² CPVey: om. SUWX, cf. Σ‎ 42. 6

Critical Apparatus

28 φυσικοῦ+ὀργανικοῦ‎ X

τοιοῦτο‎ CUeyΦ‎^l: τοιούτου‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

ὃ ἂν] ὅταν‎ W

Editor’s Note

28. Now such a body is an organic body. (The parts even of plants are organs, but completely simple ones; the leaf is the sheath of the pod, the pod the sheath of the fruit, while the roots, drawing in the food, answer to the mouth.)

Editor’s Note

^b1–4. ὄργανα … τροϕήν‎. This is a parenthesis, in which A. reminds his readers that not only animals but also plants are organic bodies. Soul having been defined in ^a27–28 as the first entelechy of an organic being, it follows that plants have souls; but since they have only simple organs they have only simple souls. They have only the θρεπτικὴ ψυχή‎ of which A. speaks in 415^a23 (cf. 413^b5, 7, 414^a33, 415^a2, 416^a19).

Critical Apparatus

^b3 ἡ δὲ ῥίζα‎ V

Critical Apparatus

4 δή‎ VWXS^lΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c, Φ‎^l^p in Phys.: δὲ‎ CSU¹ey

κοινὸν] καὶ‎ V

Editor’s Note

412^b4. The general definition of soul, then, is 'the first actualization of an organic natural body'. Thus we should not ask whether soul and body are one, just as we should not ask whether the imprint and the wax, or a particular thing and its matter, are one; for of all the meanings of 'unity' and 'being' actuality is the primary one.

Critical Apparatus

5 ἐντελέχεια ἡ πρώτη‎ CPSUVeyΘ‎Σ‎: ἡ πρώτη ἐντελέχεια‎ WX: ἐντελέχεια‎ A^l

τοῦ σώματος‎ V¹

Critical Apparatus

5–6 ὀργανικοῦ φυσικοῦ‎ S

Critical Apparatus

6 καὶ‎ om. V

ψυχὴ+κατὰ τὸ εἶδος‎ V

Critical Apparatus

8 ἡ‎ om. PSXΣ‎

Editor’s Note

8–9. τὸ γὰρ … ἐστιν‎, i.e. the primary sense of ἕν‎ is ἐντελεχείᾳ ἕν‎, and the primary sense of ὄν‎ is ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄν‎.

Critical Apparatus

9 λέγεται‎ CVeyΣ‎: om. PSUWX, cf. S^p 92. 1, Θ‎ 42. 17

ἡ‎ UPWy, cf. S^c 92. 3, Σ‎ 43. 8: ἧ‎ C, cf. Φ‎^p 218. 33: ἡι‎ e

Critical Apparatus

10 ἡ‎ codd., cf. Φ‎^p 220. 19: om. S^lΦ‎^l, cf. Σ‎ 43. 9

οὐσία γὰρ] ὅτι οὐσία‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

10. We have stated in general terms what the soul is, viz. that it is an essence corresponding to a definition, i.e. it is the essence of a certain kind of body. If some instrument, e.g. an axe, had been a natural body, being an axe would have been its essence and its soul; take this away, and it ceases to be an axe, except in name, but, as things are, it is an axe. It is not of that sort of body that the soul is the essence, but of a particular kind of natural body, one that has a source of movement and rest in itself.

Editor’s Note

10–11. οὐσία … λόγον‎. A difficult phrase, for which nothing in what precedes has prepared us. Its meaning is cleared up, however, by what follows in ll. 11–17. A. there illustrates his doctrine about the soul by considering what the proper definition of 'axe' is. If you are trying to define 'axe', you need not, indeed you should not since it would be irrelevant, say anything about the material it is made of; you should say 'it is an instrument for cutting by a blow' (with perhaps some further qualification). Similarly if you are trying to define a living being, you should not say anything about its materials; you should say something like this—'a living being is one that can do one or more of the following things—nourish itself, perceive, think, desire, initiate movement'. All of these are functions of soul, and therefore soul is the οὐσία κατὰ τὸν λόγον‎ (the essence according to the definition), the τί ἦν εἶναι‎ (the 'what it was for it to be') of a living body.

Critical Apparatus

11 ὥσπερ‎ Ρ‎

Critical Apparatus

12 ἦν φυσικὸν‎ V

μὲν‎ om. UPWΣ‎Φ‎^c

γὰρ‎ om. X

Critical Apparatus

13 τὸ‎ UΡ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c: τῶ‎ CWe: αὐτῷ‎ y

ψυχή+ἐστι‎ W

τούτω‎ V

Critical Apparatus

14 δὲ‎ CUVe, cf. Θ‎ 42. 23: γὰρ‎ SX

αὐτῆς‎ S

ἂν‎ om. V

ἦν] εἶναι‎ y

Critical Apparatus

15 ἔστι‎ Förster: ἐστὶ‎ codd.

Editor’s Note

15–17. οὐ … ἑαυτῷ‎. The stress here is, of course, on ϕυσικοῦ τοιοῦδί‎, which is paraphrased by ἔχοντος ἀρχὴν κινήσεως ἐν ἑαυτῷ‎.

Critical Apparatus

16 τοιουδί‎ codd. Σ‎: τοῦ‎ A^lΦ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

17 ἑαυτῶ‎ CPVeyΦ‎^c: αὐτῶ‎ SUA^l: αὐτῶ‎ WX

Editor’s Note

17. We must apply this to the parts of the body. If the eye had been an animal, sight would have been its soul, since that is the essence of eye as it would be stated in the definition of 'eye'; the eye is the matter required for sight; in the absence of sight there is an eye only in name—like a stone eye or an eye in a drawing. We must apply to the whole living body what we have said of a part; for as part is to part, so is perception as a whole to the whole percipient body as such. It is not the body which has lost its soul, but that which has it, that has the power of living; the seed, or the pod, is that which is potentially a body of this sort.

Critical Apparatus

18 ἦν ὁ‎ om. S

Critical Apparatus

19 ψυχὴ ἂν αὐτοῦ ἦν‎ VΦ‎^c: ἦν ἂν ψυχὴ αὐτοῦ‎ Φ‎^c: ἦν ἂν τούτου ψυχὴ‎ Ρ‎

ψυχὴ‎ W

ἦν‎ om. X

Critical Apparatus

20 ἀπολιπούσης‎ S^p

Critical Apparatus

21 οὐκέτι‎ CPVeyΘ‎, cf. S^p 93. 32, Σ‎ 43. 33: οὐκ ἔστιν‎ SUWX

ὁμωνύμως‎ UPWyΘ‎, cf. Σ‎ 43. 34: ὁπώνυμος‎ Ce

λίθος‎ SX

Critical Apparatus

22 δὴ‎ CSUeΘ‎, cf. S^p 94. 1: δὲ‎ VXΦ‎^c: om. Ρ‎

λέγειν‎ S^l

τὸ ἐπὶ μέρους‎ om. y

Editor’s Note

22–23. δεῖ … σώματος‎, 'we must apply to the whole living body what we have said about the eye'.

Critical Apparatus

24 οὕτως‎ CSeyS^pΦ‎^p: om. PUVWXΣ‎

ὅλον σῶμα] μέρος‎ y

Editor’s Note

26–27. τὸ δὲ … σῶμα‎, 'while the semen in the case of an animal, the seed in the case of a plant, is what is potentially a body of a certain kind, i.e. a living animal or a living plant'.

Editor’s Note

27. Waking life is an actualization as the axe's cutting and the eye's seeing are; soul is an actualization as the sense of sight and the power of the axe are; the body is that which is there by way of potentiality; but as the pupil and the sight make an eye, the body and the soul make an animal. Clearly, then, the soul is not separable from the body, or certain parts of it (if it can be divided into parts) are not separable; for the activity of some parts belongs to the parts of the body themselves. Yet some parts may be separable, because they are not actualizations of any body. But it is still uncertain whether the soul is the actualization of the body in the way we have discussed, or is related to it as a sailor is to his ship. Let this serve as a general description of soul.

Editor’s Note

27–28. ὡς … τμῆσις‎. A. returns in thought to the simile of the axe (l. 15).

Critical Apparatus

28 τμῆσις‎ CUeS^l^pΦ‎^c: πρίσις‎ Ρ‎Θ‎

καὶ‎² CPVeyS^lΘ‎Φ‎^c: om. SUWX

Critical Apparatus

413^a1 ἡ‎¹ om. V

Editor’s Note

413^a1. ἡ ὄψις‎ means 'the faculty of sight', as opposed to the act of seeing, ἡ ὅρασις‎.

Critical Apparatus

2 ὀφθαλμὸς‎ PSUWeyΦ‎^c, cf. Θ‎ 43. 19: ὁ ὀφθαλμὸς‎ CV¹XS^pΣ‎

Editor’s Note

2. τὸ δὲ … ὄν‎, a rather careless way of saying 'while the body is that which potentially has the faculty of sight and the activity of seeing'.

Critical Apparatus

3 ζῷον‎ CPVeΣ‎: τὸ ζῷον‎ SUWXy, cf. S^p 94. 23, Θ‎ 43. 20

Critical Apparatus

4 οὖν‎ om. y

Editor’s Note

4–5. ἢ … πέϕυκεν‎. This, and ll. 6–7 οὐ … ἐντελεχείας‎, leave open the question whether there is any part of the soul that is separable from the body, the question which A. answers in Γ‎. 5, where he affirms that one form of νοῦς‎ (οὗτος ὁ νοῦς‎, 430^a17) is deathless and eternal (ib. 23)—a doctrine which is also stated or implied in 408^b29, 429^b5, and De Gen. An. 736^b27–737^a1.

Critical Apparatus

5 τινὰ‎ om. W

ἡ‎ om. S^c

Editor’s Note

5–7. ἐνίων … ἐντελεχείας‎, i.e. 'for the activity of some parts of the soul is at the same time an activity of the parts of the body themselves. Yet there is nothing to prevent some parts of the soul from being separable from the body, because they are not activities of anything bodily.' This is again an allusion to the activity of νοῦς ποιητικός‎, which in Γ‎. 5 A. describes as surviving the body.

Critical Apparatus

6 οὐ μὴν‎ om. X

Critical Apparatus

7 οὐδὲ‎ X κωλύει+εἶναι‎ V

μηδὲν‎ X: οὐδὲν‎ S

ἐντελέχεια‎ y

Critical Apparatus

8 ἔστι‎ W

δὲ‎ SUWS^lΦ‎^l^c: τε‎ Cey: om. P

ἢ‎ om. codd.

Editor’s Note

8–9. ἔτι … πλοίου‎. It is surprising to find this suggestion made here, since it flatly contradicts the thesis A. has been maintaining. The wording suggests that A. may be referring to a simile which someone had actually put forward, but I have found no trace of it in the Pre-Socratics or in Plato. Alex. De An. 15. 9–26 examines and rejects it, which suggests that these words were present in his text of the De Anima. We need not suppose that A. has any doubt which of the two alternatives he mentions is correct; what he says is that he has not yet disproved the suggestion that the soul is to the body as a steersman is to his ship. He does not return to the suggestion elsewhere.

Critical Apparatus

9 οὖν‎ om. W

Critical Apparatus

11 μὲν‎ om. X: +τῇ φύσει‎ W¹

Editor’s Note

413^a11. Since the natural progress is from that which is obviously true but not understood to that which is more fully understood, we must try to achieve such a progress; a definition should not, as most definitions do, state only the fact; it should give the reason. As things are, the definitions of terms that are offered are like conclusions. If we define squaring as the finding of an equilateral rectangle equal to one that is not equilateral, we merely state the conclusion of a syllogism; if we define it as the finding of a line which is the mean between the unequal sides of a rectangle, we give the reason for the conclusion.

Critical Apparatus

12 τὸν‎ CPSUXeS^l^pΦ‎^l: om. VΦ‎^p

Critical Apparatus

13 οὕτω γʼ ἐπελθεῖν‎ CPVeΣ‎: οὕτως ἐπανελθεῖν‎ SUXS^cΦ‎^c^p: οὕτως ἐπελθεῖν‎ S^l^p

Critical Apparatus

14–^b25 ὅρων … δυνάμεως‎ desunt excisis foliis y

Critical Apparatus

17 τί‎ CPSUVWeΘ‎Σ‎: τίς‎ X: ὅτι‎ Φ‎^l ὁ‎ om. PVΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l

ὀρθογώνιον‎ codd. S^cΣ‎Φ‎^l^p: τετράγωνον‎ Θ‎: an ὀρθογωνίῳ ὀρθογώνιον‎?

Editor’s Note

413^a17–20. οἷον … αἴτιον‎. There are two peculiarities here. (1) A. says that squaring is a square's being equal to a figure with unequal sides. But squaring is not a theorem, but a problem, and εὑρεῖν‎ (cf. εὕρεσις‎, l. 19) or Euclid's συστησάσθαι‎ would be more correct than A.'s εἶναι‎ (l. 18). The solution of the problem, however, involves the proving that the square constructed is equal in area to the given figure, and εἶναι‎ may therefore be accepted. (2) The problem of constructing a square equal to any given rectilinear figure (Euclid 2.14) contains two parts:—(a) the construction of a rectangle equal to the given figure and (b) the construction of a square equal to the rectangle thus obtained. It is only the second of these that is a μέσης εὕρεσις‎, so that strictly ll. 17–18 should read τὸ ἴσον ἑτερομήκει ὀρθογωνίῳ ὀρθογώνιον εἶναι‎ (strictly, εὑρεῖν) ἰσόπλευρον‎. It is possible that ὀρθογωνίῳ‎ has dropped out; but here also it is more probable that A. was writing in a hurry.

Critical Apparatus

18 εἶναι‎ codd. S^cΣ‎: an εὑρεῖν‎?

λόγος‎ SUWXΦ‎^p: om. CPVe

Critical Apparatus

19 ὅτι‎ CSUWXeΘ‎: τί‎ PVΣ‎

ὁ‎ om. PXΘ‎Σ‎

μέσης‎ UWXeΘ‎: μέσου‎ C: ὁ ἐκ μέσης‎ S^l: ὅτι μέσης‎ PVΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

20 λέγομεν‎ UWeS^lΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c S^c in Phys.: λέγωμεν‎ CPA^l

οὖν+τὴν‎ A^l

λαβόντες‎ ante 21 διωρίσθαι‎ WXA^l

Editor’s Note

20. Making a fresh start, therefore, we say that the animate differs from the inanimate by possessing life. But 'life' has several meanings; that which has any of these things—reason, sense-perception, local movement and rest, nutrition, decay, and growth—we describe as living.

Critical Apparatus

21 τῆς‎ om. SX

σκέψεως‎ CVeS^lΦ‎^c, S^c in Phys., cf. Ρ‎Σ‎ 47. 31: +τοῦ πράγματος‎ SUWXA^l

Critical Apparatus

22 ζῆν‎¹+ἔχοντι σώματι‎ A^l

Critical Apparatus

23 αὐτό φαμεν‎ codd. Φ‎^l: λέγομεν‎ S^l: αὐτὸ λέγομεν‎ Σ‎

Editor’s Note

24. κίνησις ἡ κατὰ τροϕήν‎, coming to occupy more space by feeding. αὔξησις‎ (l. 25) is just another name for this.

Critical Apparatus

25 καὶ‎ om. V

φθίσιν‎ (+τε‎ SUX) καὶ αὔξησιν‎ SUWX, cf. Ρ‎, Σ‎ 47. 36

καὶ‎³ om. W

Editor’s Note

25. Therefore even things that merely grow are thought to have life, because they have in them a faculty by which they grow and decay in opposite directions, not only upwards but also downwards and in every direction; this is true of all things that absorb nutriment and live as long as they can get it. This faculty is separable from the others (though not vice versa, in mortal things). Anyone can see that plants have no other faculty of soul.

Critical Apparatus

26 ἐν‎ om. X¹

αὐτοῖς‎ CVWe: αὐτῆς‎ S¹

Critical Apparatus

28 ἄνω μὲν] ἄνωθεν‎ V

Critical Apparatus

29 πάντη ἐκτρέφεταί τε καὶ‎ SUX: πάντοσε καὶ τρέφεται καὶ‎ V

Editor’s Note

29. πάντῃ‎ = in all three dimensions.

Editor’s Note

32. ἐν τοῖς θνητοῖς‎. A. reserves the possibility, at least, that there are ἀθάνατα‎ which have other powers of soul without having the nutritive faculty; he is probably thinking of God and the heavenly bodies.

Critical Apparatus

33 δύναμις τούτοις ὑπάρχει‎ W

Critical Apparatus

^b1 τοῖς ζῶσι] παρὰ τοῖς ζώοις Ρ: πᾶσι τοῖς ζωοις‎ SU: τοῖς ζώοις πᾶσι‎ X: πᾶσι τοῖς ζῶσι‎ S^lΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

413^b1. While living things have life in virtue of this faculty, being an animal depends on having the faculty of perception; even things that cannot move, but have sense-perception, we describe as animals and not merely living things. Now the first sense, that which they all have, is touch; as the nutritive faculty is separable from touch and from all sense-perception, touch is separable from the other senses (by the nutritive faculty we mean that which is shared by plants; and all animals clearly have the sense of touch). The reason for each of these two facts will be stated later.

Editor’s Note

^b2. τὸ δὲ ζῷον‎ is written elliptically for τὸ δὲ ζῷον εἶναι‎.

Critical Apparatus

3 αἴσθησιν δʼ ἔχοντα‎ V

Critical Apparatus

4 ζῷα λέγομεν‎ ante 3 ἔχοντα‎ X

ὑπάρχει πρῶτον πᾶσι‎ S: πᾶσιν ὑπάρχει πρῶτον‎ X

Critical Apparatus

5 δὲ] γὰρ‎ X

Critical Apparatus

8 φυτὰ‎ SUX

Critical Apparatus

8–9 φαίνεται ἅπαντα‎ X

Editor’s Note

10. ἑκάτερον τούτων‎. The two things are (1) that the nutritive faculty can exist without the perceptive (ll. 5–6), and (2) that touch can exist without the other senses (ll. 6–9). A. gives the reason for (1) in 434^a22–30 a, and for (2) in 434^b9–25.

Critical Apparatus

11 ἐπὶ‎ om. Φ‎^l

ψυχὴ πάντων τῶν εἰρημένων ἀρχὴ‎ Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

11. What we have said may be summed up in this, that the soul is the source of, and is distinguished by, the faculties of nutrition, sense-perception, reasoning, and movement. Whether each of these is a soul or a part of soul, and if a part, whether separable only in theory or also in place—this is a question easy to answer in some cases, difficult in others.

Editor’s Note

11–414^a4. νῦν … ἁϕήν‎. A. here raises two problems (^b13–15)—(1) whether each of the faculties of soul—those of nutrition, sense-perception, reasoning, initiation of movement—is a soul, or only a part of soul, and (2) if it is only a part, whether it is only separable in theory or can exist separately. He concentrates on the second question, and points out (^b16–24) that, as some plants can be divided and yet survive (i.e. can be propagated by cuttings), so some animals (viz. insects) can survive division and retain their faculties. He reserves (^b24–27) the question whether reason can survive the extinction of the other faculties, but maintains (^b27–32) that the other faculties of soul, though distinguishable, are not separable from one another. He adds (^b32–414^a3) (1) that, while some animals have all the faculties of soul, others have only some of these, or only one of them, and (2) that while some have all the senses, others have only that of touch.

Critical Apparatus

12 αὐξητικῷ‎ V

Critical Apparatus

13 ἐστιν ἢ ψυχὴ‎ ut vid. V¹: ἐστιν ἠ ψυχὴ‎ X

Critical Apparatus

15 μόνον‎ CUWeΘ‎, cf. Φ‎^p 237. 33: μόνῳ‎ PΣ‎Φ‎^l

μὲν+οὖν‎ PX

τούτων‎ CVWeΦ‎^l: om. PSUXΘ‎Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

16 ὡς‎ C

Editor’s Note

16. For (a) as some plants when divided live in separation (the reason being that soul in them is in each plant actually one but potentially many), so is it with other differentiae of the soul; when insects are cut in two, each part has sense-perception and the power of movement, and with sense-perception come imagination and desire; for where there is perception, there are pain and pleasure, and where these are, there is appetite. But (b) with regard to reason and the faculty of contemplation the position is not yet clear. This seems to be another class of soul; it alone can exist apart, as the eternal can from the perishable.

Critical Apparatus

17 ζῶντα] καὶ ζῶντα‎ SX, fort. U¹

Critical Apparatus

18 αὐτοῖς‎ UPS^lΘ‎Σ‎: τούτοις‎ CWe

Critical Apparatus

19 φυτῷ‎ om. V

Critical Apparatus

20 ἀπὸ‎ W

Critical Apparatus

21 ἔχει ἕκαστον τῶν μερῶν‎ V

Critical Apparatus

22 αἴσθησιν καὶ φαντασίαν, καὶ‎ Jackson

Editor’s Note

22–23. εἰ … ὄρεξιν‎. In 415^a6–11 A. says that not all creatures that have perception, i.e. not all animals, have ϕαντασία‎, and in 428^a9–11 he expresses the same view, more doubtfully (δοκεῖ‎). Jackson therefore in the present passage punctuated thus: εἰ δ' αἴσθησιν καὶ ϕαντασίαν, καὶ ὄρεξιν‎. But that is clearly an unnatural punctuation. A.'s most definite statement is in 433^b31–434^a10, where he ascribes ϕαντασία‎ to all animals, but says that all have αἰσθητικὴ ϕαντασία‎, while some have also βουλευτικὴ ϕαντασία‎. It must be αἰσθητικὴ ϕαντασία‎ that he here ascribes to all animals.

Critical Apparatus

23 καὶ λύπη … ἡδονή] λύπη … ἡδονή‎ PSUXΣ‎, cf. Θ‎ 45. 38: καὶ ἡδονή γε καὶ λύπη‎ W: καὶ ἡδονὴ καὶ λύπη‎ Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

24–27. περὶ … ϕθαρτοῦ‎. For A.'s definitive view on this question we must look to Γ‎. 5.

Critical Apparatus

25 οὐδέν πω‎ CeS^l^pΦ‎^l^c^p: οὐδέπω‎ UΡ‎yΣ‎Φ‎^c: οὔπω‎ W

Critical Apparatus

26 καὶ‎ om. SX¹Θ‎, Alex. ap. Φ‎

ἐνδέχεσθαι χωρίζεσθαι‎ Φ‎^lS^c in De Caelo: ἐνδέχεται χωρίζεσθαι‎ CPSUVeΣ‎: ἐνδέχεσθαι‎ Χ‎¹Θ‎, Alex. ap. Φ‎

Editor’s Note

27. It is evident from this that the other parts of the soul are not separable, as some maintain; but clearly they are different in definition. The capacity of sense-perception is different from that of opinion, since perceiving is different from opining; and so too with the other faculties.

Editor’s Note

28. καθάπερ τινές ϕασιν‎. This probably refers to Plato, among others. Plato, as Hicks observes, not only divides the soul, but in Tim. 69 d 6–72 d 3 assigns its parts to different parts of the body.

Critical Apparatus

32 ἔτι] ὅτι‎ Ce¹Φ‎¹: ἐστι‎ W

ὑπάρχειν‎ X

Editor’s Note

32. Besides, some animals have all of these faculties, some have some, some have only one (which makes a distinction between animals). Why this is so, we must consider later. The same is true of the senses; some animals have them all, some have more than one, some have only the most necessary one, touch.

Critical Apparatus

33 τινὰ] ἐλάττω‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

ποιεῖ‎ PSUX

S^pΦ‎^c: ποιήσει‎ CVe

Editor’s Note

33. ἑτέροις … μόνον‎. This is a careless statement, for A. undoubtedly ascribes at least the faculty of perception as well as that of nutrition to all animals (414^a32–^b3)—even to insects (413^b19–22). It would be possible to omit τῶν ζῴων‎ (l. 32) as a gloss, or to read τῶν ζώντων‎, in which case the reference would be to plants. But all the MSS. and all the ancient commentators have τῶν ζῴων‎ (though Philoponus points out that it should have been τῶν ζώντων‎).

Editor’s Note

33–414^a1. τοῦτο … ζῴων‎, i.e. this offers a basis for the classification of animals.

Critical Apparatus

414^a1 διαφορὰς‎ Ρ‎: διαφορὰ‎ W

αἰτίαν+γέγονεν‎ UXyΦ‎^l

σκεπτέον‎ Ρ‎Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

414^a1. ὕστερον ἐπισκεπτέον‎ refers to Γ‎. 12 and 13.

Critical Apparatus

2 τὰς‎ PSVXyΣ‎Φ‎^l: om. C¹UWe

αἴσθησιν‎ C¹

Critical Apparatus

3 πάσας ἔχει‎ U

τὰς‎ S¹

τινάς] ἐλάττους‎ Ρ‎, cf. Φ‎^p 243. 20

Editor’s Note

3. τὰ δέ‎, e.g. bees, which A. considers to have no sense of hearing (Met. 980^b23); in H.A. 627^a17 he expresses doubt on the point.

Critical Apparatus

4 ἐπεὶ‎ codd. S^l^pΣ‎Φ‎^l: ἔτι‎ Torstrik

καὶ‎ codd. Φ‎^l: +ᾧ‎ S^lΘ‎

Editor’s Note

414^a4. 'That by which we live and perceive' is an ambiguous phrase, as is 'that by which we know', by which we may mean either knowledge or the soul; similarly we may be said to be well by health or by part or the whole of our body. Of these, knowledge is the shape, form, definition, or activity of that which is capable of knowing, and health is similarly related to that which is capable of becoming healthy (for the activity of that which acts is exhibited in that which is acted on), and soul is that by which, primarily, we live, perceive, and think; therefore it is a sort of definition or form, not a matter or substratum.

Editor’s Note

4–14. ἐπεὶ … ὑποκείμενον‎. In dealing with this difficult and important passage, it is necessary first to consider the textual difficulties. Bonitz proposed in l. 5 the reading καθάπερ ᾧ ἐπιστάμεθα λέγομεν τὸ μέν κτλ.‎, with no marks of parenthesis, and in l. 7 he retained ᾧ‎. This produces an apparent parallelism between ll. 5–6 and ll. 7–8. But it is not a real parallelism, since in ll. 5–6 we have the accusatives ἐπιστήμην‎ and ψυχήν‎, while in l. 7 we have the datives ὑγιείᾳ‎ and μορίῳ‎. In that line Bywater's omission of ᾧ‎ is demanded by grammar, and with its removal the argument for the removal of δέ‎ in l. 5 disappears.

In the received text all the clauses down to πρώτως‎ in l. 13 are subordinate clauses, and to get a principal clause we must (a) omit δέ‎ in l. 12, or read δή‎, or (b) treat ὥστε‎ in l. 13 as beginning, irregularly, the main clause. δέ‎ is in fact needed, to balance the μέν‎ in l. 8; the soul is opposed to knowledge as it is in ll. 5–6. It is therefore preferable to retain δέ‎ and suppose (as Bonitz did) that in so long and complicated a sentence A. failed to notice that all the clauses down to l. 13 are subordinate clauses, and therefore used ὥστε‎. Bonitz's Index Aristotelicus 873^a31–44 contains many similar examples.

The meaning of μορϕὴ καὶ εἶδός τι καὶ λόγος‎ (l. 9) is not very easy to grasp, but a clue to the meaning is given by the use of λόγος‎ and εἶδος‎ in ll. 13–14 in opposition to ὕλη‎ and ὑποκείμενον‎. The use of the three words μορϕή‎, εἶδος, λόγος‎ suggests that A. is groping for the right word; they are all used to indicate that knowledge and health are not self-subsistent entities but abstractions, elements in the being of the knower or the healthy animal. A. finds a better expression of his meaning in the words which he adds (ll. 9–11), οἷον ἐνέργεια τοῦ δεκτικοῦ‎. He has already used a phrase which expresses still better his view of soul, when he called it the πρώτη ἐντελέχεια‎ of the body (412^a27, ^b5).

The first clause of the sentence (l. 4) does not give the reason for the conclusion drawn in ll. 13–14; it gives the setting of the problem raised in the rest of the sentence, ἐπεί‎ meaning, as it often does in A., 'whereas'. A. then (ll. 5–8) says that there are two answers that may be given to the question 'by what do we know?' (viz. (a) 'by knowledge' or (b) 'by the soul'), and two answers to the question 'by what are we healthy?' (viz. (a) 'by health' or (b) 'by some part of the body, or the whole body'). He adds (ll. 8–11) that in giving an (a) answer we are mentioning a μορϕή, εἶδος, λόγος‎, in fact a sort of ἐνέργεια‎, of the δεκτικόν‎, i.e. of that which is capable of knowing, or of being made healthy. This means that if we give an (a) answer we are giving an abstract name to the activity which has hitherto been referred to by the words ἐπιστάμεθα‎ and ὑγιαίνομεν‎, while if we give a (b) answer, saying that it is by the soul that we know, or that it is by the potentially healthy body that we become healthy, we are naming the actual δεκτικόν‎ of knowledge, or of health. Incidentally A. points out (ll. 11–12) that it is in the patient (not in the agent) that the activity of an agent is, i.e. is manifested. So far, the reasoning, though complicated, is cogent. But now (l. 13) comes a curious inference, 'therefore the soul is a λόγος‎ or form, not a matter or subject.' In ll. 5–12 soul, knowledge, act of knowing are to one another as body, health, healthy activity are to one another, soul being a quasi-ὕλη‎ or δεκτικόν‎, as body is a literal ὕλη‎. But in ll. 13–14 soul is described as a λόγος‎ or εἶδος‎, not a ὕλη‎ or ὑποκείμενον‎. It would seem that A. has become entangled in the coils of his logic. His real way out is to say that soul is neither a ὕλη‎ or δεκτικόν‎ nor an activity, but a πρώτη ἐντελέχεια‎ (412^a27, ^b5).

Critical Apparatus

5 δὲ‎ secl. Bonitz

Critical Apparatus

7 ᾧ‎ secl. Bywater, cf. Φ‎^p 244. 23

ὑγιείᾳ‎ CPVWS^pΘ‎Φ‎^p: ὑγίεια‎ eΣ‎: ὑγίειαν‎ SUX: ὑγεία‎ y

μόρια‎ ut vid. y¹

Critical Apparatus

9 τι‎ om. V

καὶ‎⁴ om. SUX

Critical Apparatus

10 τῶν δεκτικῶν‎ PXS^pΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c

ὑγιαστοῦ‎ PXS^pΣ‎Φ‎^p: ὑγιαστικοῦ‎ CSUVW¹ye

Critical Apparatus

12 ἐνέργεια ὑπάρχειν‎ W: ἐνέργεια‎ y

ἡ‎ om. S ᾧ ζῶμεν‎ om. V

Editor’s Note

12–13. ἡ … πρώτως‎. In detail, for a body to be alive, it must have a ψυχὴ θρεπτική‎, for it to be an animal body it must have a ψυχὴ αἰσθητική‎, and for it to be a human body it must have a ψυχὴ διανοητική‎.

Critical Apparatus

13 πρώτῳ‎ Φ‎^l

Critical Apparatus

14 οὐχ+ὡς‎ UPyS^cΣ‎

ὑποκείμενον+ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎ P

Editor’s Note

14. 'Substance' having three meanings—form or actuality, matter or potentiality, and that which comprises both of these (i.e. the living creature), the body is not the actuality of the soul, but vice versa.

Critical Apparatus

15 καθάπερ εἴπομεν‎ om. Ρ‎

Critical Apparatus

15–16 ὕλη τὸ δὲ εἶδος‎ PU²XΘ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

15. καθάπερ εἴπομεν‎, viz. in 412^a6–11.

Critical Apparatus

16 δʼ‎ om. Ρ‎ δυνάμει‎ y¹

Critical Apparatus

17 δὲ] τʼ‎ S ἔπειτα‎ e: ἐπεὶ δὲ‎ PSUΘ‎, cf. Φ‎^p 246. 2

Editor’s Note

17. ἐπεὶ … ἔμψυχον‎. This does not mean that every compound of matter and form is a living creature (a stone, for example, has both matter and form). What A. is saying is that since the compound of matter and form which we are considering is a living creature, it is clear from the whole argument in ll. 4–14 that in it soul plays the part of form or entelechy, and body that of matter.

Critical Apparatus

19 καλῶς‎ om. V

μήτʼ‎ … 20 μήτε] ὅτε οὔτε ἄνευ σώματος ἡ ψυχὴ οὔτε‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

19. Therefore they judge well who think the soul neither exists apart from body nor is a body; it is not a body, but something belonging to a body; it therefore exists in a body, and in a body of a particular kind. People used to fit soul into body without defining the kind of body required, though it does not look as if any chance body could receive any chance capability. We do so no longer, and that is reasonable; for it is only in appropriate matter that an actuality can be lodged. Evidently, then, soul is an actuality, the formulable essence of that which can assume such and such a character.

Editor’s Note

19–20. καὶ … ψυχή‎. The ancient commentaries throw no light on the question what thinkers A. has here in mind; but Bonitz points out that A.'s description of the view in question agrees well with the view expressed by Simmias in the Phaedo (85 e 3–86 d 4) that the soul is to the body as ἁρμονία‎ (correct tuning) is to the lyre. We know from the fragments of the Eudemus that A. had earlier been bitterly opposed to this view, which treated the soul as perishing when the body dies; but when he wrote the De Anima he would have accepted it, subject to a reservation in favour of νοῦς ποιητικός‎ (De An. 3. 5).

Critical Apparatus

20 μὲν‎ CPVeΘ‎Σ‎: om. SUX

Critical Apparatus

21 δὲ+εἶδος‎ V

Critical Apparatus

22 ὑπάρχειν‎ W ἐν‎ om. PSXΘ τούτῳ‎ y¹ καὶ] ἀλλʼ‎ Ρ‎ πρότεροι‎ Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

22–25. καὶ οὐχ … τυχόν‎. A. has the Pythagoreans, among others, in mind; he has said very much the same about them in 407^b13–26.

Critical Apparatus

23 αὐτὰ‎ W¹ οὐδὲ‎ Ρ‎

προσδιορίζοντες‎ CVeΦ‎^p: προσδιορίσαντες‎ PSUXΣ‎: διορίζοντες‎ Φ‎^l

Critical Apparatus

24 οὐ‎ S

Critical Apparatus

25 οὕτω] τοῦτο Σ δὴ‎ W καὶ‎ UCeyΣ‎: om. PWΘ‎

Critical Apparatus

26–27 ἐγγίνεσθαι πέφυκε‎ Ρ‎

Critical Apparatus

27 γίνεσθαι‎ S καὶ λόγος‎ om. V

Critical Apparatus

28 εἶναι τοιούτου‎ CPVeΘ‎Σ‎: τοιουδὶ εἶναι‎ SUX

Editor’s Note

28. τοιούτου‎, i.e. ἐμψύχου‎.

Critical Apparatus

29 αἱ δʼ εἰρημέναι τῶν δυνάμεων τῆς ψυχῆς‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

414^a29. Of the faculties of the soul some creatures have all, some some, some only one. These faculties are those of nutrition, sense-perception, desire, local movement, thought. Plants have only the nutritive faculty; other creatures have also that of perception. If they have this, they have also that of desire; which includes appetite, combative spirit, and rational wish. All animals have the sense of touch, and anything that has sense-perception experiences pleasure and pain, and therefore appetite, which is desire of the pleasant. Besides, they have a perception of food; for touch is the sense by which food is perceived, since it is by things that are either dry or wet, either hot or cold, that all living things are nourished, and touch is the sense by which these qualities are perceived, while of all other objects of sense it is only per accidens the sense. For sound, colour, and odour contribute nothing to nourishment, while flavour is one of the objects of touch. Hunger is appetite for what is dry and hot, thirst appetite for what is wet and cold, and flavour is a sort of sweetening of such objects.

Editor’s Note

414^a29–31. Τῶν … μόνη‎. Cf. 413^b32–414^a3.

Critical Apparatus

30 καθάπερ εἴπομεν‎ UPΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l: ὥσπερ εἴπομεν‎ W: om. Cey

Critical Apparatus

31 μόνη μία‎ V

αἰσθητικὸν ὀρεκτικόν‎ VXΘ‎: ὀρεκτικὸν αἰσθητικὸν‎ CPSUeyΣ‎: αἰσθητικὸν‎ W

Editor’s Note

31–32. δυνάμεις … διανοητικόν‎. ὄρεξις‎ was mentioned in 413^b23, the four other faculties ibid. 11–13. ϕαντασία‎, which was mentioned in 413^b22, is omitted here.

Critical Apparatus

^b1 τοῦτό‎ CVeΦ‎^c: αὐτό‎ PSUXΣ‎ τε‎ om. V:

γε‎ Ρ‎ εἰ … αἰσθητικόν‎ CΡ‎VeΣ‎: om. SUX

Critical Apparatus

2 ὀρέξεις‎ e βούλησις καὶ θυμός‎ y

Editor’s Note

^b2. ὄρεξις … βούλησις‎. The object of ἐπιθυμία‎ is the pleasant (ll. 5–6), that of βούλησις‎ is the good (Rhet. 1369^a3). A. nowhere assigns a single object to θυμός‎, but it is for him the principle of self-assertion, that which lies at the basis both of anger and of physical courage (E.N. 1116^b23–1117^a9).

Critical Apparatus

3 μίαν ἔχουσί γε‎ y: μίαν ἔχουσι‎ PW: ἔχουσι μίαν‎ Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

5 τε‎ UPWyS^pΣ‎: om. CeΦ‎^c λυπηρόν‎ CPSUXeS^pΣ‎: τὸ λυπηρόν‎ VΦ‎^c καὶ‎ Ρ‎VΧ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c: +ἡ‎ Ce: om. SU

Critical Apparatus

6 ὄρεξις‎ CVeΦ‎^c: +ἐστιν‎ PSUX, cf. Σ‎ 52. δὲ‎ om. CPe: τε‎ Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

6. ἔτι … ἔχουσιν‎. One is at first sight inclined to suppose that l. 6 introduces, as a second sense which the animals must have, the sense of taste (which in ch. 10 A. treats as a separate sense). But the words which follow show that here, at least, A. is treating taste as a form of touch, just as even in ch. 10 he says the γευστόν‎ is ἁπτόν τι‎ (422^a8). He is in fact adding to the general statement that all animals have ἁϕή‎ (l. 3), by pointing out that they have in particular a sense for food, and that touch is that sense.

Critical Apparatus

7 καὶ ὑγροῖς‎ om. V

Critical Apparatus

8 ζῶντα‎ CSU¹Χ‎¹eΘ‎Φ‎^p: ζῷα‎ PVS^l

ἅπαντα‎ S^l

Critical Apparatus

9 τῶν … αἰσθητῶν‎ codd., A apud Φ‎, S^l^pΘ‎Φ‎^l^c: τοῖς δʼ ἄλλοις τῶν αἰσθητῶν Σ: τοῖς δʼ ἄλλοις αἰσθητοῖς‎ Torstrik

Editor’s Note

9. τῶν … συμβεβηκός‎. (1) Alexander, as reported by Phil. 253. 13–20, took these words closely with τούτων δ' αἴσθησις ἁϕή‎, and interpreted them as meaning that, while the sense of touch apprehends dryness and wetness, heat and cold, directly, it apprehends other objects such as sound, colour, and scent (414^b10–11) only per accidens. It is at first sight hard to see how touch can be said to perceive these even per accidens; A.'s answer is 'because it apprehends objects which in fact have sound, colour, and scent'; and, though that is not really a good reason for saying that the sense of touch per accidens apprehends sound, colour, and scent (ll. 9–11), it is quite possible that A., writing carelessly, said that it does.

(2) Phil. himself (253. 21–28) connects the words in question with οἷς δὲ ταῦτα, καὶ ἐπιθυμία· τοῦ γὰρ ἡδέος ὄρεξις αὕτη‎ (ll. 5–6), and says that they mean that, while animals desire τὸ ἡδύ‎ directly, they desire the other sensible objects only per accidens. Them. evidently took the same view; for he says (47. 32) τῶν δὲ ἄλλων αἰσθητῶν κατὰ συμβεβηκὸς ταῖς τροϕαῖς ὀρεγόμεθα‎. This view is exposed to a fatal objection, viz. that the words we are trying to interpret not only are too far removed from the words οἷς δὲ ταῦτα‎, etc., but occur in what is offered as part of a different argument (ἔτι δέ‎, etc., l. 6).

(3) Simp. 105. 34–106. 5 connects the words in question with ἡ γὰρ ἀϕὴ τῆς τροϕῆς αἴσθησις‎ (l. 7), and takes them to mean that, while the sense of touch apprehends food directly, it apprehends the other sensible objects (sound, colour, scent) per accidens. This is open to the objection that food is not an αἰσθητόν‎ in the same sense as sound, colour, and scent are: it is a substance, which they are not.

(4) Soph. 53. 7 says ἀλλὰ τρεϕόμεθα μέν, ὡς εἴρηται, τοῖς κατὰ τὴν ἁϕὴν αἰσθητοῖς, τοῖς δὲ ἄλλοις τῶν αἰσθητῶν τῶν παρ' ἑτέραις αἰσθήσεσιν, ὄψει ὀσϕρήσει καὶ ἀκοῇ, οὔ‎. This gives an excellent sense, but in the absence of any other evidence for the reading τοῖς δὲ ἄλλοις τῶν αἰσθητῶν‎, and in the presence of very strong evidence for the alternative reading, we should not be justified in accepting the former; it is probably just Sophonias' way out of the difficulty.

All things considered, Alexander's opinion seems to be the best. The difficulties of the passage are to be attributed partly to haste in writing, partly to the fact that A. has not made up his mind whether taste is a distinct sense or merely a species of touch; it is noteworthy that neither γεύεσθαι‎ nor any of its derivatives occurs earlier in the De Anima than in 420^b19.

Critical Apparatus

10 οὐδὲν‎ y¹: οὐδὲ‎ X οὐδὲ χρῶμα‎ om. e

Critical Apparatus

11 ὁ δὲ] οὐδὲ‎ y¹

Critical Apparatus

12 ξηροῦ καὶ θερμοῦ‎ CUVeS^pΘ‎Σ‎: θερμοῦ καὶ ξηροῦ‎ PSX

Critical Apparatus

13 ὑγροῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ‎ Ρ‎Χ‎Σ‎: ψυχροῦ καὶ ὑγροῦ‎ CUVeS^pΘ‎: καὶ ὑγροῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ‎ S

οἷον] ὥσπερ‎ Ε‎

τι‎ CΡ‎eΦ‎^p: om. UΕ‎

Editor’s Note

414^b14. We must be more precise later; for the present we must be content with saying that the living things which have touch have also desire (the question of imagination is obscure, but we must defer the consideration of it). Some creatures have in addition local movement, and others (i.e. men, and anything there may be which is like or superior to men) have the power of reasoning, and intuitive reason.

Editor’s Note

14. διασαϕητέον … ὕστερον‎, viz. in ch. 10.

Critical Apparatus

15 διωρίσθω‎ UΡ‎Θ‎Σ‎ ζώντων‎ Susemihl: ζῴων‎ codd. Θ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

15. ζώντων‎. The emendation is clearly necessary; all animals, A. holds, have the sense of touch (414^b3).

Critical Apparatus

16 δῆλον‎ C¹: ἄδηλα‎ W¹

Editor’s Note

16. περὶ … ἐπισκεπτέον‎. A.'s general account of ϕαντασία‎ is to be found in 427^b14–429^a9. He does not mean that the whole nature of ϕαντασία‎ is obscure; what he is referring to is the question where, in the scale of living things, ϕαντασία‎ begins to appear—the question to which he returns in 433^b31–434^a21.

Critical Apparatus

18 τοῖς δʼ ἔτι πρὸς τούτοις διάνοια καὶ νοῦς‎ Ε‎

καὶ‎¹ om. Wy

ἀνθρώπῳ‎ Ε‎: ἄνθρωπος‎ VX

καὶ‎ CEPUVeS^lΘ‎Σ‎: κἂν‎ SΧ‎Φ‎^c

Editor’s Note

18–19. καὶ εἴ … τιμιώτερον‎. A. is alluding to the unmoving eternal beings which in Met. 1073^a23–34 he describes as causing the movement of the planets.

Critical Apparatus

19 τι+ζῷον‎ Ρ‎: +ἄλλο ζῷον‎ Ε‎ ἕτερόν ἐστι‎ CEPXeS^lΣ‎: ἐστιν ἕτερον‎ SUVΘ‎: ἕτερον‎ Φ‎^c

ἢ] ἢ καὶ‎ EPSUX S^lΘ‎Σ‎: καὶ‎ Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

20 λόγος] νοῦς‎ y¹ τε‎ om. Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

20. Clearly, then, there can be a single definition of soul only in the same sense as there can be one of figure; neither figure nor soul exists apart from its kinds. In either case there can be a definition which will apply to all the kinds.

Editor’s Note

20–415^a13. δῆλον … δῆλον‎. It is important to see what, exactly, A. says in this section. He does not deny the possibility of a general definition of soul, and he has in fact offered one in 412^b5, εἴη ἂν ἐντελέχεια ἡ πρώτη σώματος φυσικοῦ ὀργανικοῦ‎. What he denies is the utility of offering such a definition while neglecting to study the various faculties of soul, ἀϕέντας τὸν τοιοῦτον‎ (414^b27). He shows, instead, the different layers in which soul is built up. First comes the nutritive faculty, next the perceptive, within which the same pattern is found, the sense of touch being found without the others but not vice versa (415^a3–6). Next comes the faculty of movement (^a6–7); next, that of imagination (οὐδὲ ϕαντασία‎, 415^a11); finally that of reasoning (415^a7–11).

Critical Apparatus

21 σώματος‎ W¹

ἔστι‎ om. V

Critical Apparatus

22 ἑξῆς‎ W

ψυχὴ‎ Ε‎Ρ‎SUΧ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l: ἡ ψυχὴ‎ CVeS^c

τὰ εἰρημένα‎ Φ‎^l

γένοιτο‎ UEWΣ‎: γίγνοιτο‎ CPey

Critical Apparatus

23 ὁ λόγος‎ W

Critical Apparatus

24 ἴδιος … ἔσται] οὐκ ἔσται μεντοῖδος οὐθενὸς‎ Ε‎

ἔσται‎ ESUWeyS^pΣ‎: ἐστι‎ PVX: εἴη‎ C

Editor’s Note

25. It would be absurd, then, either in this case or in any other, to search for the general definition and ignore the particular. (Both in the case of figures and in that of soul the prior species is always present potentially in the posterior, the triangle in the quadrilateral, the nutritive faculty in the perceptive.)

Critical Apparatus

26 ἔσται‎ CEVeS^lΘ‎: ἐστι‎ Ρ‎SUXΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

27 κατὰ‎ UCEPeS^l^pΣ‎: πρὸς‎ W¹y¹

καὶ‎ UΕ‎Ρ‎WS^l^pΣ‎:

+τὸ‎ Cey

ἀφέντας‎ UCEPeyΦ‎^p: ἀφέντες‎ W: ἀφέντα‎ S^l^p

Editor’s Note

27. ἀϕέντας τὸν τοιοῦτον‎, though it has been otherwise interpreted, plainly means 'ignoring the definition which does correspond to the infima species'.

Critical Apparatus

28 τῷ] τὰ‎ S

παρὰ‎ S: ἐπὶ‎ VS^l

καὶ‎ … 30 σχημάτων‎ ras. 15 litt. V

Critical Apparatus

29 κατὰ‎ Ce S^l: περὶ τὴν‎ EPSUX

ἐν τῷ‎ CUEe: ἐν τῇ‎ Ρ‎: τῷ‎ Θ‎Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

30 ἐπὶ‎ om. Ρ‎Θ‎: ἐπί τε‎ Ε‎

Critical Apparatus

31 τρίγωνον‎ CEPSUΧ‎eΘ‎: τὸ τρίγωνον‎ VΣ‎

θερπτικόν‎ Ε‎

Editor’s Note

31. οἷον … θρεπτικόν‎. The comparison is only a rough and ready one. The quadrilateral necessarily presupposes the triangle, since it can be divided into two triangles, while it is only de facto that the perceptive faculty never exists apart from the nutritive; in 415^a1–11 A. only points to the observable facts.

Critical Apparatus

32–33 ὥστε … θηρίου‎ hoc loco codd. Θ‎Σ‎Φ‎^p: post 28 τοιοῦτον‎ locanda ci. Förster

Critical Apparatus

32 ὥστε+καὶ‎ Ε‎

Editor’s Note

32. We must therefore ask what the soul of each species is, e.g. of plant, of beast, of man. We must consider why the faculties follow the order they do. Without the nutritive faculty the perceptive does not exist, but in plants the former is found without the latter. Without the sense of touch the other senses do not exist, but it exists without them in many animals. Again, of creatures that have perception some but not all have local movement. Reasoning and thought come last, and belong to the fewest creatures; all perishable creatures that can reason have also all the other faculties, but not all that have the other faculties can reason; some have not even imagination, while others live by this alone. The contemplative intellect must be considered separately. It is clear, then, that the description which takes account of the various faculties is the best description of soul.

Critical Apparatus

33 καὶ‎ om. P

ἢ] καὶ τῆς‎ Ε‎

τῷ‎ CSUXeΦ‎^l: τὸ‎ EPΣ‎: om. V

Critical Apparatus

33–415^a1 οὕτως ἔχουσιν ἐφεξῆς‎ V

Editor’s Note

33–415^a1. διὰ … σκεπτέον‎. A. answers this question briefly in 415^a1–11, and more fully in 434^a22–435^b24, where he argues (1) that all living things must have the nutritive soul (434^b22–26), but that not all need have the sensitive soul (ib. 27–30) (plants in fact not having it), (2) that all animals, i.e. all living things that can move, must have sensation (ib. 30–^b8), (3) that the senses which all animals have are (a) touch and (b) taste, which is a form of touch (^b9–22), (4) that animals which are capable of movement must have perception at a distance (i.e. sight, hearing, and smell (^b24–29). He adds (435^b19–24) that these three senses are necessary not for the sake of being but for that of well-being.

Critical Apparatus

415^a2 τοῖς δʼ αἰσθητικοῖς‎ V¹

τὸ θρεπτικὸν χωρίζεται‎ Wy

Critical Apparatus

5 γὰρ‎ CEPVeΣ‎: δὲ‎ SUX ἔχει‎ V

Editor’s Note

415^a5–6. πολλὰ … αἴσθησιν‎. A. gives many illustrations of this in his works on natural history.

Critical Apparatus

6 ὀσμὴν οὔτʼ ἄλλην αἴσθησιν‎ V

ὀσμῆς‎+ὅλως‎ PSUXΣ‎

δὲ‎ om. Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

7 τελευταῖον‎ UΕ‎eyΦ‎^l: τελευταῖα‎ CPW

Editor’s Note

7. τὰ … ἔχει‎. Cf. 410^b19–20, 413^b2–4.

Critical Apparatus

8 ἐλάχιστα‎ CΡ‎Χ‎eΣ‎Φ‎^l^p: ἐλάχιστον‎ SUV

διάνοιαν+οἷον ὁ (ὁ‎ om. Ρ‎e¹Σ‎) ἄνθρωπος ἤ (+εἰ‎ Ρ‎Σ‎) τι τοιοῦτον ἄλλο (ἕτερον‎ Ρ‎Σ‎) ὑπάρχει‎ PWyΣ‎Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

9 τῶν φθαρτῶν‎ om. Ε‎Ρ‎Σ‎

πάντα+τῶν εἰρημένων‎ PΣ‎

Editor’s Note

10–11. τοῖς … ϕαντασία‎. Cf. 428^a8–11, where A. cites grubs.

Critical Apparatus

11 τὰ] τοῖς‎ y

ταύτῃ μόνῃ‎ CPVeyΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l^c: μόνη ταύτη‎ W: ταύτη μόνον‎ S¹UX

Editor’s Note

11. ταύτῃ μόνῃ ζῶσιν‎, not, of course, without perception, but without any faculty higher than ϕαντασία‎, i.e. without θεωρητικὸς νοῦς‎.

Editor’s Note

11–12. περὶ … λόγος‎. This subject A. discusses in Γ‎. 4–7.

Critical Apparatus

12 νοῦ‎ CUΧ‎eS^lΘ‎Φ‎^l^c: om. Ρ‎S¹VΣ‎

ὅτι‎ … 13 λόγος‎ mg. U¹

ἑκάστου‎ om. V

Editor’s Note

12–13. ὅτι … δῆλον‎, i.e., the discussion of the above-mentioned faculties of soul is the best way of discussing soul itself.

Critical Apparatus

14 ποιεῖσθαι‎ UCeyS^lΦ‎^l: ποιήσασθαι‎ PWΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c

Editor’s Note

415^a14. Anyone who is going to study these faculties must first define each of them, and then go on to the properties most closely connected with them, and to those that are more remote. But if we are to define each of the faculties, we must first define the corresponding activities, since these are logically prior to the faculties.

Editor’s Note

415^a14–16. Ἀναγκαῖον … ἐπιζητεῖν‎. The distinction between τὰ ἐχόμενα‎ and τὰ ἄλλα‎ must be that between the properties which follow most directly from the definitions (τί ἐστιν‎) of the various faculties and those that are more remote. Hicks is probably right in suggesting that τὰ ἄλλα‎ refers to such matters as waking and sleeping, youth and old age, respiration and expiration, life and death, which in De Sensu 436^a12–17 are described as part of the psychologist's problem.

Critical Apparatus

15 ἕκαστον … ἐστιν‎ CVeS^pΦ‎^l^c, cf. Θ‎ 49. 14: τί ἕκαστον αὐτῶν ἐστιν‎ Ε‎: τί ἕκαστόν ἐστιν αὐτῶν‎ P: τί ἐστιν ἕκαστον αὐτῶν Σ: ἕκαστον αὐτῶν‎ SUX

Critical Apparatus

16 καὶ … ἄλλων‎ om. Ρ‎, cf. Θ‎ 49. 15 καὶ‎ CEVeS^p, cf. Σ‎ 56. 16: ἢ καὶ‎ SUX

τί‎ om. Φ‎^l

Critical Apparatus

17 τί‎ om. U τὸ‎¹ om. W

ἢ‎¹+τί‎ Ε‎S, cf. Θ‎ 49. 17

Critical Apparatus

18 πότερον‎ y¹

ἔτι‎ CUΧ‎eΣ‎Φ‎^l: ἐστὶ‎ PS: om. V

καὶ τί] καὶ Σ: ἢ‎ Φ‎^l

πρότεραι‎ CPVXeyS^lΘ‎Σ‎: πρότερον‎ SU¹, ut vid. W

Editor’s Note

18–20. πρότεραι … λόγον‎, if we are to understand what 'the faculty of doing so-and-so' is, we must understand what 'doing so-and-so' is.

Critical Apparatus

19 αἱ ἐνέργειαι τῶν δυνάμεων‎ Wy

Editor’s Note

19. κατὰ τὸν λόγον‎. It was much discussed by the ancient commentators what this means; it seems plain that it means 'in logical order'.

Critical Apparatus

20 τὸν‎ om. e

δʼ‎² om. e¹

πρότερα‎ CΡ‎SVeΣ‎: πρότερον‎ EUXΦ‎^p

Editor’s Note

20. But, if that is so, we must, even before that, study the objects of the activities, e.g. food and the objects of perception and of thought. Let us take first nutrition and reproduction; for the nutritive soul belongs to creatures other than man, and is the primary and most universally present faculty, that in virtue of which all living things have life.

Editor’s Note

20–25. εἰ … ἅπασιν‎. The reasoning here is rather careless. A. first says that we should study the objects of the faculties before we study the faculties themselves; and this is quite reasonable. Nutrition, for instance, being the absorption of food, we must know what food is before we can understand what nutrition is. τροϕῆς‎, in l. 23, being treated as corresponding to τὸ αἰσθητόν‎ or τὸ νοητόν‎, must mean 'food'; but in l. 23, being parallel to γέννησις‎, it must mean 'the absorption of food'. In ll. 22–23 it is said to follow from what has just been said that we must treat first of nutrition and generation; but this in fact follows not from what has just been said, but from what follows in ll. 23–25, viz. that nutrition and generation are the basic faculties whose presence constitutes life.

Critical Apparatus

21 δεῖ τεθεωρηκέναι‎ om. W

δεῖ‎ CVeyΦ‎^p: καὶ δεῖ‎ Ρ‎SUΧ‎Σ‎

πρότερον ἂν‎ Ρ‎Σ‎: δʼ ἂν πρῶτον‎ W¹: ἂν πρότερον‎ y

Editor’s Note

22–^b2. ὥστε … ϕύσιν‎. A.'s reason for treating first of the faculty of nutrition is clear enough; what is less clear is his reason for treating nutrition and reproduction as activities of the same faculty (ll. 25–26). His reason is that both are forms of self-preservation. Nutrition is strictly so; reproduction is so in a way, since it is the production of a creature which is οἷον αὐτό‎ (l. 28), 'like the producer'.

Critical Apparatus

23 γενέσεως‎ Ρ‎

Critical Apparatus

24 καὶ‎¹ om. V

καὶ‎² CSWeΣ‎: om. EPUVXyΦ‎^l^c

Critical Apparatus

25 ψυχῆς‎ om. V

πᾶσις‎ Ε‎

ἧς‎ UCEPeS^lΘ‎Φ‎^c: οἷς‎ Wy

Editor’s Note

25. Its functions are generation and nutrition; for the most natural function of living things that are complete, not mutilated nor spontaneously generated, is to produce an animal or plant like the parent, and so share in the eternal and the divine. All things aim at that, and for its sake do all that they do by nature (though 'for whose sake' may mean 'in whose interests' as well as 'to obtain which').

Critical Apparatus

26 ἔργα‎ CUeS^lΘ‎Φ‎^c: ἔργον‎ Ε‎Ρ‎Σ‎

καὶ‎ UCEeyS^l: τε καὶ‎ PWΣ‎Φ‎^l^c

χρῆσθαι‎ CΕ‎Ρ‎eΦ‎^c: χρήσασθαι‎ US^lΣ‎

φυσικώτατον‎ PSWXS^lΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l^p: φυσικώτερον‎ Cey, ut vid. U¹: φυσικώτατα‎ V

τῶν‎ … 27 ζῶσιν‎ CUVeyΣ‎: τῶν ἔργων τοῖς ζῴοις‎ PS: τοῖς ζῴοις τῶν ἔργων‎ X: ἔργον τοῖς ζῶσιν‎ W: τῶν ἐν τοῖς ζῶσιν ἔργων‎ S^l: ἁπάντων τοῖς ζῶσιν Θ: τοῖς ζῶσίν ἐστιν‎ Φ‎^l, cf. Φ‎^p 268. 9, 269. 26

Critical Apparatus

27 γέννησιν‎ Φ‎^l^p

Editor’s Note

27–28. ὅσα … αὐτό‎. A. here specifies two conditions on which reproduction depends. (1) The creature in question must have reached maturity. (2) It must be neither (a) a stunted creature, one whose development has gone wrong, nor (b) a product of spontaneous generation, A.'s reason in the latter case being, no doubt, that that which has not been produced by parents is naturally incapable of becoming a parent. The special form of stunting A. has in mind is the stunting of the sexual organs (De Gen. An. 746^b31–33); in Met. 1034^b3 he cites the mule as an example. In A.'s biological works there are many references to animals which he believed to be produced by spontaneous generation from lifeless materials; cf. Bonitz's Index, 124^b3–32.

Critical Apparatus

28 αὐτομάτην‎ CVXeyS^pΘ‎Φ‎^l^p: αὐτόματον‎ EPSUS^lΣ‎: αὐτομάτως‎ W¹ αὐτὸ οἷον ἕτερον‎ Ε‎

Critical Apparatus

29 ἵνα+δὴ‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

μετέχωσιν‎ PSWXyΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c: μετέχουσιν‎ C¹Ue: μετάσχωσιν‎ V

Critical Apparatus

^b1 καὶ ἐκείνου‎ CUVeΘ‎: κἀκείνου‎ Ε‎Ρ‎SΧ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

^b1–3. πάντα … ᾧ‎, i.e. 'for all things aim at eternity and divinity, and for their sake do everything that they do by nature' (but we must note that 'for the sake of which' is ambiguous, meaning either 'to attain which' or 'in whose interests'). The words τὸ δ' οὗ ἕνεκα … ᾧ‎ are repeated with very little difference in ll. 20–21, and it has often been thought that either these words or those of ll. 20–21 are an interpolation. But all the MSS. and all the ancient commentators have both phrases, and both are perfectly appropriate. In ll. 1–2 A. says that eternity and divinity are the οὗ ἕνεκα‎ in the sense of being that at which all things aim; in ll. 20–21 he says that soul is the οὗ ἕνεκα‎ in the sense of being that in whose interest the bodies of animals and of plants exist.

Critical Apparatus

2 πράττει κατὰ φύσιν‎ UCEeΘ‎: κατὰ φύσιν πράττει‎ Wy: κατὰ φύσιν‎ Ρ‎Σ‎ διττόν‎ CESUVeS^lΣ‎: δισσόν‎ PXΘ‎Φ‎^l

οὗ] ὃ‎ C¹e¹: ᾧ‎ y

Critical Apparatus

3 ᾧ] οὗ‎ y

Editor’s Note

415^b3. Since they cannot share in the eternal and the divine by continuity of life (because no perishable creature can remain for ever numerically the same), they share in it as best they can, in different degrees; what endures is not the individual, but a being like it, different in number but alike in kind.

Critical Apparatus

4 ταὐτὸ‎ CVeΘ‎: τὸ αὐτὸ‎ PSUXΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

5 μετέχειν δύναται‎ PX

Critical Apparatus

5–6 ταύτῃ κοινωνεῖ‎ Ρ‎SUΧ‎Θ‎Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

7 δʼ ἕν‎ CESeΘ‎Σ‎: +διόπερ (ἐστι διόπερ‎ X, διὸ‎ V) τὸ σπέρμα τῶν ζῴων (φυτῶν‎ X, τῶν ζῴων τὸ σπέρμα‎ V) τὰ τῶν (τῶν‎ om. UX) φυτῶν ὄργανόν ἐστι τῆς ψυχῆς (τῆς ψυχῆς‎ om. UX) UVX: δʼ ἓν διόπερ τὸ σπέρμα τῶν φυτῶν ὄργανόν ἐστι‎ Ρ‎, cf. Σ‎ 58. 11

Critical Apparatus

8 ἡ‎ om. V

Editor’s Note

415^b8. The soul is cause and first principle of the living body, in the three senses we have distinguished—the efficient, the final, and the essential cause of living bodies.

Editor’s Note

8–416^a18. ἔστι … ὕλης‎. A. turns aside from the discussion of the nutritive soul, which began in 415^a22, to a general discussion of soul. He returns to the nutritive soul in 416^a19.

Critical Apparatus

9 ὁμοίως‎ CVWeΘ‎Φ‎^c: ὅμως‎ EPSUX

δʼ‎ om. S

κατὰ‎ CPVWeΘ‎Σ‎: om. ESUX¹Φ‎^c διωρισμένους‎ CEPVWeΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c: διηρημένους‎ SUX¹

Editor’s Note

9–10. κατὰ … τρόπους‎. The reference may be to Phys. 194^b16–35, or to Met. 1013^a24–^b3. The soul, A. says, is the efficient cause, the final cause, and the essential cause, of the living being. In ll. 12–23 the three types of cause are dealt with in the reverse order.

Critical Apparatus

10 τρεῖς τρόπους ἐστὶν αἰτία‎ W: τρεῖς‎ om. X

αἴτιον‎ Ρ‎

κίνησις‎ Ε‎Φ‎^c: +αὐτὴ‎ CPUX: +αὐτῆι‎ Se: +αὕτη‎ V

Editor’s Note

10. αὐτή‎ seems to have no point; it is absent in E and in Phil. 273. 12, and is better omitted.

Critical Apparatus

11 ἡ‎¹ om. EPUVΧ‎Σ‎Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

12 αἴτιον‎ Ρ‎ ὡς‎ CPVWXeS^lΦ‎^c: om. SU

Editor’s Note

12. (1) It is evidently the essential cause; for the cause of everything's being is the essence, living is the being of living things, and the soul is the cause of their living; besides, the nature of any potentiality can be explained only by naming the corresponding actuality.

Critical Apparatus

13 αἰτία‎ UEWΣ‎Φ‎^p αἴτιον‎ CPe

Critical Apparatus

14 τούτου‎ Ε‎Ρ‎Σ‎, cf. S^p 111. 13, Φ‎^p 271. 34, 36, 273. 20: τούτων‎ UCWe

ἕτι+δὲ‎ Ρ‎

τοῦ‎ CΡ‎VWeΣ‎Φ‎^l, cf. S^p 111. 15: +ἐν‎ SUX

ἡ‎ om. W¹

Critical Apparatus

15 ὡς καὶ‎ CΡ‎SUΧ‎eΣ‎: καὶ ὡς‎ W: καὶ ὡς τὸ‎ EV: ὡς καὶ τὸ‎ Φ‎^l

ἕνεκα‎ EPSUΧ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l αἰτία ἡ ψυχή‎ XΦ‎^l: αἴτιον ἡ ψυχή‎ Ρ‎: αἰτία ψυχή‎ Σ‎

Editor’s Note

15. (2) The soul is the final cause; for as reason acts for the sake of something, so does nature, and that for the sake of which it acts is its end; now in animals the soul is by nature the end; for all natural bodies are instruments of the soul—those of plants no less than those of animals; they exist for the sake of soul. (We must note that 'for the sake of which' may mean either 'to obtain which' or 'in whose interests'.)

Critical Apparatus

16 ὁ‎ om. V

ποιεῖ‎ EPUWXΣ‎Φ‎^c: νοεῖ‎ CSVe

Critical Apparatus

17 αὐτῆς‎ CESWe, cf. Φ‎^p 274. 10: αὐτῆ‎ PUXΣ‎: αὐτοῖς‎ V

τέλεος‎ e

ζῶσιν‎ V

Critical Apparatus

18 κατὰ‎ EV²: καὶ κατὰ‎ cet. φυσικὰ] ἔμψυχα‎ ci. Torstrik, fort. cum Φ‎^p

σώματα‎ om. S

Editor’s Note

18. πάντα … ὄργανα‎. This, if it stood alone, or if the usually received reading καὶ καθάπερ‎ were retained in l. 19, would be an overstatement, since for A. every body not made by art is a ϕυσικὸν σῶμα‎. Torstrik may be right in reading ἔμψυχα‎ instead of ϕυσικά‎, but there is no authority either in the MSS. or in the ancient commentators for the emendation, nor is the supposed corruption a likely one. The cure is rather to be found by omitting καί‎ before καθάπερ‎ in l. 19, with the MSS. SUXy; the statement is then limited to the natural bodies of animals and plants.

Critical Apparatus

19 καθάπερ] καὶ καθάπερ‎ CPVWeΣ‎

τὰ‎ bis om. PX

Critical Apparatus

20 ἕνεκεν‎ S διχῶς‎ PXS^lΣ‎:

δισσῶς‎ Φ‎^c

τὸ‎ om. Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

20–21. διττῶς … ἕνεκα‎. Cf. note on ll. 1–3.

Critical Apparatus

21 οὗ] ὃ‎ C¹e¹

Editor’s Note

21. (3) Soul is also the first cause of local movement; but not all living things have this faculty. Alteration and growth also depend on soul, since sense-perception is an alteration, and nothing that has not soul perceives, and similarly nothing wastes away, or grows, naturally, unless it is fed, and nothing is fed that does not share in life.

Critical Apparatus

22 ψυχή‎ CUΕ‎eΣ‎Φ‎^l: ἡ ψυχή‎ PS^l ἐνυπάρχει‎ V

ζώοις‎ EX

Editor’s Note

22–23. οὐ … αὕτη‎. A. denies local movement not only to plants but also to some animals (410^b19–20, 413^b2–4).

Critical Apparatus

23 ἔστι δὲ‎ om. V

Critical Apparatus

25 μετέχει ψυχῆς] ψυχὴν ἔχει‎ PSUX, cf. Ε‎Θ‎ 50. 33, Σ‎ 59. 11

Critical Apparatus

26 τε‎ om. EPΧ‎Σ‎

οὐθὲν‎ Ε‎: οὐδὲ‎ X

αὔξεται‎ CPSUWeΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^p: αὐξάνεται‎ EVX

Critical Apparatus

27 μὴ‎ om. Ρ‎ τρέφομεν‎ Ε‎

κοινωνεῖ ζωῆς] μετέχει ψυχῆς‎ W

Critical Apparatus

28 εἴρηκεν εἰς τοῦτο‎ V προσθείς‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

28. Empedocles was wrong in adding that plants grow downwards, by rooting themselves, because earth naturally moves thus, and upwards, because fire moves up. For (1) he interprets 'up' and 'down' wrongly; for 'up' and 'down' are not the same for all things as they are for the universe; the roots of plants answer to the head in animals, if it is in virtue of their functions that organs should be said to be the same or different; and (2) what is it that holds together fire and earth, moving as they do in opposite directions? They will be parted unless there is something to prevent this; but if there is, the soul is that thing, and is the cause of growth and nutrition.

Editor’s Note

28–416^a2. Ἐμπεδοκλῆς … ὡσαύτως‎. The theory which A. ascribes to Empedocles is that plants are composed of earth and fire, and that their roots grow downwards because that is the natural movement of earth, while the rest of them grows upwards because that is the natural movement of fire.

Critical Apparatus

29 συρριζουμένοις‎ C¹e: ῥιζουμένοις‎ PWΣ‎: ῥιζουμένων‎ U, cf. Θ‎ 51. 2

Critical Apparatus

416^a1 οὕτω] κάτω‎ V

τὸ‎ addidi

Editor’s Note

416^a1. τὸ 〈τὸ〉 πῦρ‎. The additional τό‎ is necessary, διὰ τὸ τὸ πῦρ‎ balancing διὰ τὸ τὴν γῆν‎.

Critical Apparatus

2 καὶ+τὸ‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

2–5. οὔτε … ἔργοις‎. In A.'s cosmological system (τῷ παντί‎) ἄνω‎ means 'at (or to) the circumference of the universe', κάτω‎ 'at (or to) the centre of the universe', which is occupied by the earth. But with regard to living things he adopts different definitions of ἄνω‎ and κάτω‎ (l. 3), which depend on the functions of the parts (τοῖς ἔργοις‎); the upper part of an animal is that at which it absorbs food, and on that principle he has to describe the root of a plant as its upper part, in spite of its being nearer the centre of the universe than the rest of the plant.

Critical Apparatus

3 ταὐτὸ‎ Ρ‎Χ‎Σ‎: τὸ αὐτὸ‎ CEUVWeS^pΘ‎Φ‎^p: αὐτὸ‎ S

καὶ‎¹+τὸ‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

5 εἰ … ἔργοις‎ om. W¹

Critical Apparatus

6 πρὸς δὲ] καὶ πρὸς‎ W

φερόμενον‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

7 τι‎ om. SW

ἐστι‎ PX

κωλῦσον‎ PSUVΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

8 ἔσται‎ CSUWXeS^c: ἔστι‎ Ρ‎VΣ‎

καὶ τὸ αἴτιον‎ om. X¹: τὸ‎ om. Ce

αὔξεσθαι‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Editor’s Note

416^a9. Some people think the nature of fire is quite simply the cause of growth and increase; for fire alone of bodies is observed to grow and increase, so that one might suppose it is fire that is at work both in plants and in animals. It is the auxiliary cause in a sense, but not a cause without qualification: it is soul that is that; for fire grows indefinitely so long as there is fuel for it, but all naturally constituted things have a limit to their size and growth, a ratio which they preserve, and these belong to soul, not to fire, to ratio, not to matter.

Editor’s Note

9–10. δοκεῖ … εἶναι‎. The τινες‎ referred to are clearly distinguished from Empedocles, about whom A. has been speaking in 415^b28–416^a9. The reference is to Heraclitus, and perhaps also to Hippasus, whom in Met. 984^a7–8 A. couples with Heraclitus as a partisan of fire as the ἀρχὴ τῶν ἀπλῶν σωμάτων‎.

Critical Apparatus

10 γὰρ+καὶ‎ V

Editor’s Note

10–12. καὶ γὰρ … αὐξόμενον‎ refers to the tendency of fire to spread.

Critical Apparatus

11 μόνον‎ om. Ρ‎

σωμάτων‎ Torstrik: σωμάτων ἢ τῶν στοιχείων‎ CPSUXey: σωμάτων καὶ τῶν στοιχείων‎ VΣ‎: στοχείων‎ S^pΘ‎: ἁπλῶν σωμάτων‎ Φ‎^p

Editor’s Note

11. τῶν σωμάτων ἢ τῶν στοιχείων‎. All the MSS. have both phrases. Them. 51. 19 and Simp. 113. 7 have simply τῶν στοιχείων‎. Phil. 277. 25 has simply τῶν ἁπλῶν σωμάτων‎. Soph. 59. 33 has τῶν σωμάτων καὶ τῶν στοιχείων‎. A. can hardly have used both phrases; probably, as Torstrik thought, ἢ τῶν στοιχείων‎ is due to an early editor who thought τῶν σωμάτων‎ too wide.

Critical Apparatus

12 αὐξόμενον‎ CPWeΣ‎Φ‎^p: αὐξανόμενον‎ UΘ‎

ἐν‎² om. W

Critical Apparatus

14 πως μέν‎ S

Critical Apparatus

15 ἡ ψυχὴ μᾶλλον‎ Ρ‎

ἡ‎¹ UP, cf. Θ‎ 51. 22: om. CWe ἄπειρα‎ Ρ‎

Critical Apparatus

16 συνισταμένων πάντων‎ CUeΘ‎: συνεστώτων‎ Ρ‎Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

17 ἐστὶ πέρας‎ CSUWeΘ‎: πέρας ἐστὶ‎ Ρ‎Χ‎S^lΣ‎: ἐστὶ καὶ πέρας‎ V

μεγέθους τε] καὶ μεγέθους‎ SUXΘ‎

τοῦτο‎ V

Critical Apparatus

18 δὲ‎ UΡ‎Σ‎, cf. Θ‎ 51. 25, Φ‎^p 278. 9: +τῆς‎ CWe

Critical Apparatus

19 δʼ] δὴ‎ X: δὴ καὶ‎ W¹

ἡ αὐτὴ] αὑτὴ‎ Ρ‎

καὶ] τε καὶ‎ Φ‎^l^c

Editor’s Note

19. The same power of the soul being the cause of nutrition and of reproduction, we must discuss nutrition first; for this faculty is distinguished from the others by this operation. One of two contraries seems to be food to the other, but this is true not of all contraries, but only of those which are not merely generated from one another but also increased by one another; of the many things that are generated from one another, some do not gain in size thereby; a healthy thing does not gain in size by being produced from a sickly one. Nor, when a is food for b, is b always food for a; water is food to fire, but fire does not nourish water.

Editor’s Note

19–20. ἐπεὶ … πρῶτον‎. A. returns to the discussion of the θρεπτικὴ ψυχή‎, which was interrupted by the general discussion of soul in 415^b8–416^a18. He has in 415^a25–26 described reproduction as being, along with nutrition, a function of the nutritive soul, and he here proposes to treat of nutrition first; but in fact he says nothing about reproduction, except in a cursory way in 416^b15–17 and 23–25. In 432^a10 he again links the two functions together, but he nowhere in the De Anima discusses γέννησις‎: he reserves it for treatment, or has already dealt with it, in the De Generatione Animalium.

Critical Apparatus

20 περὶ‎ UΡ‎S^lΘ‎Φ‎^l: καὶ περὶ‎ Ce

διωρίσθαι‎ CSU²VXeS^lΦ‎^l^c: διορίσαι‎ PW, cf. Σ‎ 60.

Critical Apparatus

21 ἡ τροφὴ εἶναι‎ Wy

Critical Apparatus

23 γέννησιν‎ e

Critical Apparatus

24 πάντα ποσά‎ C²W², Bekker: πάντα‎ CPVWe: ποσά‎ SUXy et ut vid. S^p

Editor’s Note

25–27. φαίνεται … ὕδωρ‎. Not even is it true of all the things of which one is increased by the addition of the other (^a22–24) that the other is also increased by the addition of the one. In saying that water is food for fire, A. is no doubt thinking of oil, which (as Phil. 282. 7 remarks) is ὕδωρ πεπονθός τι‎. A. describes oil as a mixture of water and air (Meteor. 385^b4, 388^a32).

Critical Apparatus

26–27 τῷ πυρὶ μὲν ὕδωρ‎ Ρ‎

Editor’s Note

27. In the case of the elements, one seems usually to be food, and the other to be fed. But there is a problem here; while some say that nutrition takes place, as ordinary increase does, by the addition of like to like, others say that contrary is nourished by contrary (their assumption being that like is not affected by like); they say that the food is altered (i.e. digested); now alteration is always to the contrary or to the intermediate state. Besides, food is altered by the creature that is fed, but not vice versa, as the craftsman is not altered by the matter he works in, but only it by him; the craftsman changes only from inactivity to activity.

Editor’s Note

27–29. ἐν … τρεφόμενον‎. This means that of the four elements fire is pre-eminently that which is fed, and water that which feeds.

Critical Apparatus

28 ἁπλοῖς‎ CΡ‎VeΣ‎, cf. S^p 114. 16: ἄλλοις‎ SUΧ‎Φ‎^l

Critical Apparatus

29: διορίσασθαι‎ yΘ‎

Editor’s Note

29–30. οἱ … αὐξάνεσθαι‎. A. probably has in mind Empedocles (cf. frag. 62. 6–8

                τοὺς μὲν πῦρ ἀνέπεμπε θέλον πρὸς ὅμοιον ἱκέσθαι‎,

                οὔτε τί πω μελέων ἐρατὸν δέμας ἐμφαίνοντας‎

                οὔτ' ἐνοπὴν οἷόν τ' ἐπιχώριον ἀνδράσι γυῖον‎,

and 90. 1–2

ὡς γλυκὺ μὲν γλυκὺ μάρπτε, πικρὸν δ' ἐπὶ πικρὸν ὄρουσεν‎,

ὀξὺ δ' ἐπ' ὀξὺ ἔβη, δαερὸν δ' ἐποχεῖτο δαηρῶι‎),

and Democritus (De Gen. et Corr. 323^b10 Δημόκριτος δὲ παpὰ τοὺς ἄλλους ἰδίως ἔλεξε μόνος· ϕησὶ γὰρ τὸ αὐτὸ καὶ ὅμοιον εἶναι τό τε ποιοῦν καὶ τὸ πάσχον‎).

Critical Apparatus

31 τὸ ἔμπαλιν‎ y: τούπαλιν‎ S

Editor’s Note

31. ὥσπερ εἴπομεν‎, in ll. 21–22.

Critical Apparatus

32 ὑπὸ τοῦ ὁμοίου‎ UyΘ‎Φ‎^c^p: om. C¹PWe

Critical Apparatus

33 δεῖν‎ ut vid. S^pΘ‎: om. codd.

Editor’s Note

33. τὴν … πέττεσθαι‎. In the received text the accusative τὴν τροφήν‎ is inexplicable. From Simplicius' words (114. 10), δεῖ μὲν oὖν καὶ τὸ τρεφόμενον ἐκ τοῦ ἐναντίου μεταβάλλειν‎, and Themistius' words (52. 7), τὴν δὲ τροφὴν δεῖ παθεῖν καὶ μεταβάλλειν‎ it seems clear that δεῖν‎ should be inserted after τροφήν‎.

Critical Apparatus

34 ἢ] καὶ‎ Χ‎Θ‎Φ‎^c

τὸ‎ om. e¹

Critical Apparatus

35 τι‎ om. P

Editor’s Note

35–^b1. ἀλλ' … τροφῆς‎. This must be taken in a special sense. The animal or plant which is nourished is of course affected by its nutriment; it grows in size. What A. means is that it is not changed in character; the food is assimilated to the feeder and not vice versa.

Critical Apparatus

^b3 ἀργείας‎ y

ἡ‎ om. V

προσγινόμενον‎ codd. Σ‎Φ‎^l: προσκρινόμενον‎ Φ‎^p, cf. S^p 115. 24, Θ‎ 52. 24

Editor’s Note

416^b3. It makes a difference whether food is what is added, in its final condition, or in its original condition. If both are food, but the one undigested, the other digested, we can speak of food in both ways; in so far as it is undigested, we have nutrition of contrary by contrary; in so far as it has been digested, of like by like. Thus each side is in a sense right, and in a sense wrong.

Critical Apparatus

4 εἰ δʼ ἄμφω‎ om. S: ἐπεὶ δʼ ἄμφω‎ P

Critical Apparatus

5 ἂν] δʼ ἂν‎ X

Critical Apparatus

6 τῷ ἐναντίῳ‎ om. S

Editor’s Note

9. Since nothing that has not life is nourished, what is nourished is the living body qua living, so that the food is relative to a living thing, and in no chance way. Being food is different from being a source of increase; in respect of the living thing's having a certain size, the food is a source of increase; in respect of its being a particular thing, a substance, the food is food (for it preserves the essential nature, and the creature lasts as long as it is fed), and brings into being not the creature that is fed, but something like it; for the creature's substance exists already, and nothing generates itself; it preserves itself.

Critical Apparatus

11 ἐστι] ἔσται‎ VΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

15 τρέφηται‎ PSVWXΣ‎Φ‎^p: τρέφῃ‎ Cey: καὶ τρέφηται‎ U

γενέσεως‎ CUXΘ‎Φ‎^c: +δὲ‎ S^l: γεννήσεως‎ PSVeΣ‎, cf. Φ‎^p 286. 13

ἀλλʼ‎ … 16 τρεφόμενον‎ om. V, post 16 οὐσία‎ W

Editor’s Note

^b15. γενέσεως‎. So the MSS. CUWXy, Them. 53. 7, Phil. 286.11: γεννήσεως‎ PSVe, Phil. 286. 13, Soph. 63. 19; cf. γεννητικόν‎ Them. 53. 6, γεννητική‎ Simp. 115. 25. The fact that A. finds it necessary to add οὐ τοῦ τρεφομένου, ἀλλ' oἷov τὸ τρεφόμενον‎ implies that the word he has used here is the wider word γενέσεως‎. There is no reference to γέννησις‎, reproduction.

Critical Apparatus

16 αὐτοῦ‎ SVWXΣ‎Φ‎^p: αὐτὴ‎ CPUey

Critical Apparatus

17 αὐτὸ ἑαυτό‎ SUXΣ‎Φ‎^p: ἑαυτό‎ CVWe: αὐτὸ‎ Py

Editor’s Note

17. Thus this principle of the soul is a power of preserving its possessor as such, and the food prepares the possessor for action; that is why if deprived of food it cannot exist.

Critical Apparatus

18 ψνχῆς‎ UPWeΣ‎Φ‎^l: τροφῆς‎ C¹y

ἔχον‎ UPΣ‎Φ‎^l^c: δεχόμενον‎ Ce

Editor’s Note

18. ᾗ τοιοῦτον‎, i.e. not ᾗ ποσόν τι‎ (l. 12) (food does not preserve, but increases, the size of the feeder), but ᾗ τόδε τι καὶ ουσία‎ (l. 13) (it preserves the feeder's individuality).

Critical Apparatus

19 στερηθεὶς‎ P

Critical Apparatus

20–23 verba ἐπεὶ … τροφή‎ Torstrik sequens post αὐτό‎ (l. 25) posui

Editor’s Note

20–27. ἐπεὶ … μόνον‎. Ll. 20–23 and ll. 25–27 form an analysis of the elements involved in nutrition; ll. 23–25 continue the general discussion of the δύναμις θρεπτικὴ καὶ γεννητική‎ which occupies ^a19–^b20. Torstrik dealt with the situation correctly by placing ἐπεὶ … αὐτό‎ before ἐπεὶ … τροφή‎: the two sentences beginning with the same words, it was very natural that the writer of the copy from which all our copies are derived should first omit ἐπεὶ … αὐτό‎, and then insert it in the wrong place.

Editor’s Note

23. Since everything should be named after its end, and the end is the generation of a being like the generator, the primary soul is that which can generate a being like the parent.

Editor’s Note

24. oἷov αὐτό‎, i.e. τοιούτου οἷον αὐτό‎.

Critical Apparatus

25 γεννητικὴ‎ C²Σ‎: γεννητικὸν‎ cet.

Editor’s Note

25. As a steersman steers both with his hand and with the rudder, so the instrument of nourishment is twofold—that which causes movement and is moved, and that which only is moved. All food must be digested, and the vital heat effects the digestion; that is why every living thing has heat. We have given a general account of what nutrition is; we must elucidate this later in the appropriate treatise.

Editor’s Note

25. ἡ πρώτη ψυχή‎, the minimal soul, i.e. the nutritive soul.

Editor’s Note

25–29. ἔστι … θερμότητα‎. In ll. 22–23 A. has spoken of ᾧ τρέφεται‎, and that is no doubt the reason why some of the MSS. and of the ancient commentators read ᾧ τρέφεται‎ in l. 25. But the analogy with ᾧ κυβερνᾷ‎ which A. points out implies the reading ᾧ τρέφει‎. This is said to include two things, one causing movement and being moved, one only being moved. The question arises, what two things A. meant. Simp. and Soph., reading as they do ᾧ τρέφεται‎, do not help us. Them., reading ᾧ τρέϕει‎, says the two things are the nutritive faculty and the innate hot substance. But, as the two things by which a man steers are said to be his hand and the rudder (l. 26), one would expect A. here also to mean two material things, i.e. two organs. Phil. hesitates between the readings κινοῦν μόνον‎ and κινούμενον μόνον‎ (288. 19–21), and says that if κινούμενον μόνον‎ be read, that which is moved and causes movement is the innate hot substance (287. 24–25), which is moved by the nutritive faculty and moves the other parts of the body—teeth, veins, stomach, etc. He adds further (288. 1–5) that some interpreters take that which is moved and causes movement to be the food, which is moved by the hot substance and 'moves' the other parts by nourishing them; and that it is better to take the κινοῦν καὶ κινούμενον‎ to be the innate hot substance, which is moved by the soul and 'moves', i.e. acts on, the food. He says, further, that Alexander took τὸ κινοῦν μόνον‎ to be the nutritive faculty, and that which is moved and causes movement to be the innate hot substance, which is moved by the nutritive faculty and moves, i.e. acts on, the food.

In l. 27, (end) κινοῦν μόνον‎ is the better supported reading (C PUVX Phil. Them., Alex. ap. Phil.); κινούμενον μόνον‎ is supported only by S, W marg., and Phil^p. Nevertheless, the latter reading is clearly preferable, the order κινοῦν καὶ κινούμενον—κινούμενον μόνον‎ corresponding to the order χείρ—πηδάλιον‎.

It is at first sight surprising that, while in ll. 22–23 A. speaks of ᾧ τρέϕεται‎ and says nothing about ᾧ τρέϕει‎, in l. 25 he speaks of ᾧ τρέϕει‎ and says nothing about ᾧ τρέϕεται‎. We can hardly doubt that he is speaking about the same thing in the two passages, but in ll. 22–23 he speaks of it as that by which the body is fed, and in l. 25 as that by which the soul feeds the body.

What, then, is the whole sequence? The mover is the first, i.e. the minimal, soul, the form of soul which can exist without the others, and does so in plants, in fact the nutritive soul. This acts on the food, digesting it by heating it up (ll. 28–29), and in turn the food acts on τὸ τρεϕόμενον‎, i.e. on the body (l. 22).

But there are two things by which the soul acts on the body (ἔστι δὲ ᾧ τρέϕει διττόν‎, l. 25c). One is the food (ᾧ δὲ τρέϕεται, ἡ τροϕή‎ (ll. 22–23). A. does not say what the other is, but the following passages, among others, show what he means: De Iuv. 469^a2–10 ϕανερὸν τοίνυν ὅτι μίαν μέν τινα ἐργασίαν ἡ τοῦ στόματος λειτουργεῖ δύναμις, ἑτέραν δ' ἡ τῆς κοιλίας, περὶ τὴν τροφήν, ἡ δὲ καρδία κυριωτάτη, καὶ τὸ τέλος ἐπιτίθησιν. ὥστ' ἀνάγκη καὶ τῆς αἰσθητικῆς καὶ τῆς θρεπτικῆς ψυχῆς ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τὴν ἀρχὴν εἶναι τοῖς ἐναίμοις, τὰ γὰρ τῶν ἄλλων μορίων ἔργα περὶ τὴν τροφὴν τοῦ ταύτης ἔργου χάριν ἐστί· δεῖ μὲν γὰρ τὸ κύριον πρὸς τὸ οὗ ἕνεκα διατελεῖν, ἀλλ' οὐκ ἐν τοῖς τούτου ἕνεκα, οἷον ἰατρὸς πρὸς τὴν ὑγίειαν‎, and ib. ^b9–17 ἀναγκαῖον δὴ ταύτης τὴν ἀρχὴν τῆς θερμότητος ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τοῖς ἐναίμοις εἶναι, τοῖς δ' ἀναίμοις ἐν τῷ ἀνάλογον· ἐργάζεται γὰρ καὶ πέττει τῷ ϕυσικῷ θερμῷ τὴν τροφὴν πάντα, μάλιστα δὲ τὸ κυριώτατον. διὸ τῶν μὲν ἄλλων μορίων ψυχομένων ὑπομένει τὸ ζῆν, τοῦ δ' ἐν ταύτῃ φθείρεται πάμπαν, διὰ τὸ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐντεῦθεν τῆς θερμότητος ἠρτῆσθαι πᾶσι, καὶ τῆς ψυχῆς ὥσπερ ἐμπεπυρευμένης ἐν τοῖς μορίοις τούτοις, τῶν μὲν ἀναίμων ἐν τῷ ἀνάλογον, ἐν δὲ τῇ καρδίᾳ τῶν ἐναίμων‎.

Critical Apparatus

25^b ἔχον] δεχόμενον‎ P

ταύτην‎ CS^lU¹Xe, cf. Θ‎ 53. 19: αὐτὴν‎ PVΣ‎

Editor’s Note

25^a. There being three things—that which is nourished, that by which it is nourished, that which nourishes it—that which nourishes is soul in its humblest form, that which is nourished is the body that has this soul, that by which it is nourished is the food.

Critical Apparatus

25^c τρέφει‎ CΦ‎^l^p, Alex. ap. Φ‎, cf. Θ‎ 53. 26: τρέφεται‎ PSUXeS^lΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

26 καὶ‎¹ CPVeΣ‎Φ‎^l: om. SUX

καὶ‎² CVeΦ‎^l, cf. S^p 116. 3, Θ‎ 53. 29: om. PSUX

Critical Apparatus

27 κινούμενον μόνον‎ S, W² marg., Φ‎^p: κινούμενον μόνως Σ: κινοῦν μόνον‎ CPUVXS^pΘ‎Φ‎^v, Alex. ap. Φ: κινοῦμενον‎ (sic) e

Critical Apparatus

28 δύνασθαι] δυνατὸν‎ Wy πέσσεσθαι‎ PXΘ‎

Critical Apparatus

29 θερμότητος‎ S

Critical Apparatus

30 ἡ … ἐστιν‎ CXeS^lΦ‎^c: ἡ τροφὴ τίς ἐστιν‎ SU: τί ἐστιν ἡ τροφή‎ V: τίς ἐστιν ἡ (ἡ‎ om. Σ) τροφή‎ PΣ‎

Critical Apparatus

31 ἐστιν‎ om. X

Editor’s Note

31. ἐν … λόγῳ‎. This work (Περὶ τροϕῆς‎ or Περὶ αὐξήσεως καὶ τροϕῆς‎) is promised also in De Gen. An. 784^b2 and in De Part. An. 678^a19. It is referred to as already existing in De Somno 456^b6 and perhaps in Meteor. 381^b13. There are other references to it (in De Part. An. 650^b10, 653^b14, 674^a20) which leave us in doubt whether it had already been written or not; but the reference in the De Somno is enough to show that it was in fact written. No other trace of it exists.

Critical Apparatus

32 λέγωμεν‎ CPSUeyA^lS^l: λέγομεν‎ VWΘ‎Σ‎Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

416^b32. We are now to discuss perception in general. It consists in being affected; it is an alteration. Some add that like is affected by like; in what sense this is possible, in what sense impossible, we have discussed in our general study of activity and passivity.

Editor’s Note

416^b32. Διωρισμένων … αἰσθήσεως‎. The discussion of perception goes on to Γ‎. 427^b26, and the discussion of ϕαντασία‎ in 427^b27–429^a9 is an appendix to it.

Critical Apparatus

33 τε] τι‎ SUWXS^l^cΦ‎^l^c, cf. Θ‎ 54. 5: τι τὸ αἰσθητήριον‎ V

Editor’s Note

34. καθάπερ εἴρηται‎, in 410^a25–26.

Editor’s Note

35. ϕασὶ … πάσχειν‎. In 405^b15 A. has ascribed this view to all his predecessors but one (viz. Anaxagoras, ib. 19), and in 410^a29 he has ascribed it in particular to Empedocles.

Critical Apparatus

417^a1–2 τοῦτο … πάσχειν‎ om. U

Critical Apparatus

1 εἰρήκαμεν‎ CPe, cf. Σ‎ 63. 23: εἴρηται μὲν‎ VS^c: +καὶ‎ SXΦ‎^c

Editor’s Note

417^a1–2. τοῦτο … πάσχειν‎, viz. in De Gen. et Corr. 1. 7.

Critical Apparatus

2 πάσχειν‎ CSVXeS^pΦ‎^p: +ῥηθήσεται δὲ καὶ νῦν‎ P: +λεκτέον δὲ καὶ νῦν‎ Alex. ap. Φ‎, cf. Θ‎ 54. 15, Σ‎ 63. 24

τί] τὸ‎ P

Editor’s Note

417^a2. The question may be asked, why we do not perceive our sense-organs themselves, i.e. why in the absence of external objects they do not give notice of themselves, though they have in them the four elements which, or whose properties, are the objects of perception. The answer is that that which is capable of perceiving is so in virtue not of an actuality, but of a potentiality, and therefore does not forthwith perceive, as that which can be burned is not burned in the absence of that which can burn it; else it would have burned itself and not needed actually existing fire.

Editor’s Note

2–4. ἔχει … αἴσθησιν‎. Them. 54. 23 and Phil. 291. 3 interpret τῶν αἰσθήσεων‎ as standing for τῶν αἰσθητηρίων‎, and Simp. 118. 3 ascribes this interpretation to Alexander, while he himself repudiates it; it actually occurs in Al. Ἀπορίαι καὶ λύσεις‎ 82. 35–36. A. occasionally uses αἴσθησις‎ in this sense (e.g. in De Sensu 440^a19 and in De Insomn. 459^b8), and often uses the names of the particular senses similarly; cf. Bonitz's Index s.v. ὄψις‎, 553^b51–61.

Critical Apparatus

3 οὐ‎ hoc loco CPVeΣ‎, post 2 τί‎ SUXΦ‎^l, cf. Θ‎ 54. 23: γὰρ οὐ‎ post 2 τί‎, omisso καὶ‎, S^p

τί] τὸ‎ P

Critical Apparatus

4 αἴσθησιν‎ CPVeS^l^cΣ‎: αἰσθήσεις‎ SUX

Critical Apparatus

5 ἡ‎ CVXeSS^lΦ‎^l: om. PSUΣ‎ αὑτὴν‎ P

ἢ] καὶ‎ X¹

Editor’s Note

5–6. ὧν … τούτοις‎. A. hedges on the question whether it is more correct to say that perception is of the elements per se or in respect of their attributes. τὰ συμβεβηκότα‎ is not to be limited to accidental attributes: it includes also the essential attributes of the elements (heat or cold, dryness or fluidity, cf. 423^b27–29).

Critical Apparatus

6 ἔστιν‎ CPVWXeS^lΣ‎Φ‎^l: ἔνεστιν‎ SUy

Critical Apparatus

7 διὸ‎ om. W οὐκ αἰσθάνεται‎ X: post καθάπερ‎ S: om. cet.

Critical Apparatus

8 αὐτὸ‎ om.

καθʼ αὑτὸ‎ CPVΣ‎: καθʼ ἑαυτὸ‎ e: ὑφʼ ἑαυτοῦ‎ SUΘ‎: ὑφʼ αὑτοῦ‎ X

ἔκαε‎ X

Critical Apparatus

9 ἂν‎ om. W αὑτό‎ PXΣ‎: αὐτό‎ SUy

οὐδὲ‎ X ὄντος] εἶναι‎ W

ἐπεὶ‎ PX

Editor’s Note

9. Since 'perceive' is used in two senses (for we say both that that which can hear or see hears or sees even when it is asleep, and that that which is already acting does so), the word 'perception' has a similar double meaning, and so has the phrase 'object of perception'.

Critical Apparatus

10 διχῶς λέγομεν‎ W

ἀκοῦον‎ om. V: ὁρῶν καὶ ἀκοῦον‎ Wy

Critical Apparatus

11 κἂν] καὶ ἐάν‎ SUX

Critical Apparatus

13 δύναμις … ἐνέργεια‎ P

αἰσθητόν‎ A^p: αἰσθάνεσθαι‎ codd. S^lΘ‎Φ‎^c^p

Editor’s Note

13. τὸ αἴσθητον‎. We owe this reading to Alex. Ἀπορίαι καὶ λύσεις‎ 83. 6. τὸ αἰσθάνεσθαι‎, the reading of all our MSS. and of Them., Phil., and Simp., is clearly wrong, because A. has already in ll. 9–12 said that αἰσθάνεσθαι‎ has two meanings.

Critical Apparatus

14 μὲν‎ om. X¹

οὖν‎ CPSUXeΦ‎^l^c: om.

VS^l

ὡς‎ CUeS^lΣ‎Φ‎^l: +οὐ‎ PΘ‎

Editor’s Note

14. Let us first use the words 'suffer', 'be moved', and 'act' as synonymous; for even movement is an activity, though an incomplete one. Now all things suffer and are moved by that which can act and which exists actually. Thus what is acted on is acted on, in a sense, by what is like it, and in a sense by what is unlike it; for it is what is unlike the agent that is acted on, but when it has been acted on it is like it.

Critical Apparatus

15 τοῦ‎⁴ PSUXS^l: om. CVeΦ‎^l^c

Critical Apparatus

16 λέγομεν‎ UPWyS^lΣ‎Φ‎^l^c

Critical Apparatus

17 εἴρηται ἐν ἑτέροις‎ W

Editor’s Note

17. καθάπερ‎ … εἴρηται‎, in Phys. 201^b31, ἥ τε κίνησις ἐνέργεια μὲν εἶναί τις δοκεῖ, ἀτελὴς δέ· αἴτιον δ' ὅτι ἀτελὲς τὸ δυνατόν, οὗ ἐστιν ἐνέργεια‎.

Critical Apparatus

18 ὑπὸ‎¹] καὶ ὑπὸ‎ U

τοῦ‎² om. A^p

Critical Apparatus

19 τοῦ‎ codd. Θ‎Σ‎: om. A^pS^lΦ‎^p

Editor’s Note

19. καθάπερ εἴπομεν‎, in 416^a29–^b9.

Critical Apparatus

20 μὲν‎ om. XΣ‎ τὸ‎ CPUVXeΘ‎Σ‎: om. SA^c

ἀνόμοιον‎+ὄν‎ U

Critical Apparatus

21 καὶ‎¹ CPUVeS^lΦ‎^l: om. SX

νῦν‎ UCeyS^lΣ‎Φ‎^l: +μὲν‎ PW

Editor’s Note

21. We must discuss potentiality and actuality more precisely than we have been doing. (1) We may call a man a knower because man is a being which possesses knowledge, and (2) we describe as a knower a man who knows the science of grammar; the former we call so because the race to which he belongs, the stuff he is made of, has this capacity; the latter because he can at will grasp a theorem of the science, if nothing hinders him; but (3) there is the man who is actually and in the proper sense understanding this letter A. Both of the first two, being potential knowers, become actual knowers, but the first in the sense that he can become a knower by undergoing a course of learning and by frequent changes from ignorance to knowledge, and the second in the sense that he can pass from the mere possession of a science to the exercise of scientific knowledge.

Editor’s Note

21. διαιρετέον … ἐντελεχείας‎. Sense-perception is still A.'s subject, but in discussing it he has used the notions of potentiality and actuality (^a6–20), and that leads him here to a general discussion of the two notions, in which he takes his examples not from sense-perception but from knowledge—a discussion which lasts until ^b16, where he begins to apply to perception the same distinction which he has drawn between two phases in the transition from merely potential knowledge to actual knowledge.

Critical Apparatus

22 ἐλέγομεν‎ Torstrik: λέγομεν‎

codd. Σ‎Φ‎^l^p: +ἃ λέγομεν‎ S^l

ἐπιστήμων τις‎ P

Editor’s Note

22. ἐλέγομεν‎. The emendation is clearly necessary; the reference is to ll. 6–14.

Critical Apparatus

23 εἴποιμεν‎ SUXΣ‎Φ‎^l: εἴπωμεν‎ CPVe

Critical Apparatus

24 ἐχόντων ἐπιστήμην καὶ ἐπιστημόνων‎ W

καὶ‎ CPVe: +τῶν‎ SUX

Critical Apparatus

25 ἐπίστασθαι‎ SX

τὴν‎ om. PV

Critical Apparatus

26 ἑκάτερον‎ V

Critical Apparatus

27 ὅτι‎ om. V¹

τοιοῦτον τὸ γένος‎ V

ἡ‎ CPSUXeΣ‎Φ‎^p: om. VS^c

ὕλην‎ V¹ βουληθείη‎ V

Editor’s Note

27. τὸ γένος‎, the race to which he belongs, the human race.

Editor’s Note

καὶ ἡ ὕλη‎, not in the literal sense, corporeal matter. The thought is that which we might express by saying 'he has the makings of a scientist'.

Critical Apparatus

28 ἂν‎ CPeΣ‎Φ‎^l; ἐὰν‎ US^c

κωλύσῃ‎ codd. Φ‎^l^p: κωλύῃ‎ S^c, cf. Θ‎ 55. 22: κωλύσοι‎ Σ‎

Editor’s Note

28–29. ὁ … θεωρῶν‎. ὁ δ' ὡς ἤδη θεωρῶν‎ would be easier, but A. is not always careful about such matters.

Critical Apparatus

29 ὢν‎ om. V

τόδε τὸ] δὲ τὸ το‎ S: ὅτι τόδε‎ W: +τι‎ y

Editor’s Note

29. τόδε τὸ‎ A, e.g. that a particular alpha is the sign of a masculine accusative singular, or that it is the sign of a neuter accusative plural.

Critical Apparatus

30 οἱ κατὰ δύναμιν ἐπιστήμονες ἐνεργείᾳ γίγνονται ἐπιστήμονες‎ Torstrik

Editor’s Note

30–^b2. ἀμφότεροι‎ … τρόπον‎. Torstrik saw that the sentence as it stands in the MSS. is incomplete, and read ἀμφότεροι μὲν οὖν οἱ κατὰ δύναμιν ἐπιστήμονες ἐνεργείᾳ γίγνονται ἐπιστήμονες‎. It seems better to read ἀμφότεροι μὲν οὖν οἱ πρῶτοι‎ (the first two of the three people mentioned in ll. 27–29), κατὰ δύναμιν ἐπιστήμονες ὄντες, ἐνεργείᾳ γίγνονται ἐπιστήμονες‎.

Critical Apparatus

30^a ὄντες … ἐπιστήμονες‎ addidi: om. codd. Σ‎

Critical Apparatus

31 μαθήσεως‎+καὶ‎ X

Critical Apparatus

32 μεταβολὼν‎ CPUVeS^cΣ‎: μεταβάλλων‎ SXΦ‎^l^p, cf. Θ‎ 55. 26 ἀριθμητικὴν‎ ut vid. Θ‎: αἴσθησιν‎ codd.

Editor’s Note

32. τὴν ἀριθμητικήν‎. All the MSS., Phil., Simp., and Soph. have τὴν αἴσθησιν‎. This is clearly not right. The previous clause has referred to the transition from the mere possession of a mind to the possession of scientific knowledge; this clause must refer to the transition from the possession of scientific knowledge to the application of it to a particular problem, and either Them.'s τὴν ἀριθμητικήν‎ (55. 28) or the name of some other science is needed. Them. gives no indication that he is emending, and we must suppose that he, the earliest except Alexander of the commentators on the De Anima, had a text which was later corrupted.

Critical Apparatus

^b2 δὲ (+οὐδὲ‎ W²) τὸ πάσχειν ἁπλοῦν‎ W πάσχον‎ V

Editor’s Note

417^b2. Nor is the suffering of a change of one kind only; one is the destruction of one thing by its contrary, the other is rather the preservation, by that which exists actually, of that which exists potentially and is related to it as a potentiality is to an actuality; for that which possesses the knowledge comes to know actually, and this is either not an alteration (because the advance is advance of a thing to itself and to actuality), or a different type of alteration. Thus it is not right to say that a thinking being, when it thinks, is altered, any more than it would be right to say that a builder is altered when he is building.

Critical Apparatus

3 δὲ‎ CPSUXeΣ‎Φ‎^c: +γένεσις καὶ‎ VS^l

ὑπὸ‎ X: om. CSUVPeΦ‎^c

Editor’s Note

^b3–5. τὸ … ἐντελέχειαν‎. The suggestion here is the reasonable one that a potentiality is liable to die away if it is never exercised.

The traditional text, τὸ δὲ σωτηρία μᾶλλον τοῦ δυνάμει ὄντος ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος καὶ ὁμοίου οὕτως ὡς δύναμις ἔχει πρὸς ἐντελέχειαν‎ cannot be right, since it is not τὸ ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄν‎ that is to τὸ δυνάμει ὄν‎ as δύναμις‎ is to ἐντελέχεια‎, but vice versa. The simplest cure is to read μᾶλλον ὑπὸ τοῦ‎ (with the MS. X) ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος τοῦ δυνάμει ὄντος καὶ ὁμοίου οὕτως ὡς δύναμις ἔχει πρὸς ἐντελέχειαν‎.

Critical Apparatus

4 ἐντελεχείᾳ … δυνάμει‎ scripsi: δυνάμει ὄντος ὑπὸ τοῦ ἐντελεχείᾳ‎ codd. Φ‎^cΣ‎: ἐντελεχείᾳ ὄντος‎ om. X

καὶ ὁμοῦ‎ S

Critical Apparatus

6 τὴν‎ CPUVeΘ‎Φ‎^c: om. SX

ἢ‎ om. A^l^c

αὑτὸ‎ Shorey: ἑαντὸ‎ XΣ‎Φ‎^p: αὐτὸ‎ CPSUVeS^cΘ‎Φ‎^c

Critical Apparatus

7 καὶ ἡ ἐντελέχεια‎ V

γένος] εἶδος‎ V

Critical Apparatus

9 ὥσπερ‎ om. V

Editor’s Note

9. Therefore the leading of a thinking being from a state of potentiality to actuality is either not teaching but deserves another name, and that which, starting from a potential existence, learns and acquires knowledge by the action of that which exists actually and can teach it should not be said to be acted on, or else we should say there are two kinds of alteration, the movement to negative conditions and that towards positive conditions, to a thing's very nature.

Critical Apparatus

10 ἄγειν ἐκ‎ Torstrik: ἄγον ἐκ‎ UCWeA^cΦ‎^l^p: ἀνάγον ἐκ τοῦ‎ y: ἀλλʼ ἐκ‎ P

ὄντος … νοοῦν‎ om. y¹

κατὰ‎ UCPWeA^c: secl. Torstrik

νοεῖν καὶ φρονεῖν‎ A^c

καὶ+τὸ‎ Φ‎^l

Editor’s Note

10–11. τὸ … ϕρονοῦν‎. The MSS. read τὸ μὲν οὖν εἰς ἐντελέχειαν ἄγον ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος κατὰ τὸ νοοῦν καὶ φρονοῦν‎. This, taken in conjunction with the rest of the sentence, cannot be right, and we can choose between two other readings. (1) One may read, with Alex. Ἀπορίαι καὶ λύσεις‎ 81. 15 (our oldest authority), τὸ μὲν οὖν εἰς ἐντελέχειαν ἄγον ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος κατὰ τὸ νοεῖν καὶ φρονεῖν‎, or (2), with Torstrik, τὸ μὲν οὖν εἰς ἐντελέχειαν ἄγειν ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος τὸ νοοῦν καὶ φρονοῦν‎. The MSS. have an inacceptable blend of the two readings, agreeing with Alexander in having ἄγον‎ and κατά‎, but with Torstrik in having τὸ νοοῦν καὶ φρονοῦν‎. To my mind there is little doubt that Torstrik is right; this is by no means the only passage in which Alexander had a false reading.

Critical Apparatus

12 ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος‎ codd. Σ‎Φ‎^l^p: secl. Torstrik

ὄντος‎+κατὰ τὸ νοοῦν καὶ φρονοῦν μανθάνον‎ X

Editor’s Note

12. ἐκ δυνάμει ὄντος‎. Torstrik's excision of these words is unnecessary; the phrase used in l. 10 is naturally enough repeated here.

Critical Apparatus

13 ἤτοι] εἶτα‎ V

οὐδὲν‎ X

Critical Apparatus

14 ὥσπερ εἴρηται ἢ‎ CPVeΣ‎: ἢ‎ SUX, cf. A^p 84. 26, Θ‎ 56. 7, Φ‎^p 304. 16, 18: an ἢ ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎?

Editor’s Note

14. ἤ ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎. CPVWey and Soph. have ὥσπερ εἴρηται ἤ‎: SUX, Alex., Them., and Phil. have simply ἤ‎. A. has not in fact said that the passage from potential to actual knowledge is not a form of πάσχειν‎; he has said (ll. 2–4) that there are two kinds of πάσχειν‎—one a destruction by a contrary, the other a preservation of that which exists potentially by that which exists actually. It follows that we should here either read ἢ ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎ or omit ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎. It does not much matter which, but since some MSS. omit ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎, while none read ἢ ὥσπερ εἴρηται‎, the omission is preferable.

Critical Apparatus

16 τὴν‎ om. V

καὶ+ἐπὶ‎ V¹

δʼ‎ om. P

Editor’s Note

16. As regards the faculty of sense-perception, the first change is wrought by the parent, and when the new creature has been generated it already has the power of perceiving, as it has that of knowing. The exercise of perception corresponds to the exercise of knowledge, but with this difference, that the agents which produce the exercise of perception are external, the visible object, the audible sound, etc. The reason is that actual perception is of particular things, while knowledge is of universals, which are, in some sense, in the soul itself. That is why knowing depends simply on the knower's wish, while perception does not; the sensible object must be there. The same is true of the sciences dealing with sensible objects, and for the same reason, that sensible objects are individual and external things.

Editor’s Note

16–17. τοῦ … γεννῶντος‎. This must be taken to mean that the first stage in the history of the capacity for sensation is the imparting of it by the parent to the child at birth.

Editor’s Note

17–18. ὅταν … θεωρεῖν‎. This must mean that a new-born animal has the faculty of sense-perception, as a new-born man has the faculty of knowing, and that similarly the exercise of the faculty of sense-perception answers to actual knowing.

Critical Apparatus

18 καὶ‎ om. W τὸ‎ C¹Ue: καὶ τὸ‎ PSWXyA^cS^pΦ‎^c: om. V

Critical Apparatus

19 δὲ‎ PUWXyA^cΦ‎^c: post ὁμοίως‎ CE: om. SV

τῷ‎ SUWXeyA^cΦ‎^c: τὸ‎ CPV¹

Editor’s Note

20. τοῦ μὲν‎, an instance of μέν‎ solitarium, for which cf. An. Pr. 61^a19 and Waitz's note thereon. Similar examples are found in 418^a14, 419^b1, and in many other passages.

Critical Apparatus

21 λοιπὰ‎ CPVeΣ‎: +ἀπὸ‎ SU: ἄλλα ἀπὸ‎ X¹

Critical Apparatus

23 ἔσται‎ PΣ‎

διὸ+τὸ‎ V

Editor’s Note

23–24. ταῦτα … ψυχῇ‎, a bold phrase, paralleled by the description of the soul, in 429^a27, as the τόπος εἰδῶν‎, and by the saying, in 431^b29, οὐ γὰρ ὁ λίθος ἐν τῇ φυχῇ, ἀλλὰ τὸ εἶδος‎. A.'s point is that while the particular things, which are apprehended by perception, are outside the perceiver, it is only in the mind of a thinker that universal attributes are distinguished from the particular things that have them. In ll. 24–28 A. adds that the disability thus imposed on sense-perception, viz. that it must wait for its object, is also imposed on the sciences which deal with sensible objects.

Critical Apparatus

24 αὐτῶν‎ e¹ ὅταν‎ VWXΣ‎: ἐστιν ὅταν‎ S^l

βούλεται‎ V

Critical Apparatus

25 γὰρ] μὲν γὰρ‎ P

τοῦτο‎ CPVeΣ‎Φ‎^l: τούτω‎ UXS^l: τούτοις‎ S

Critical Apparatus

26 ταῖς‎² CSUVeS^lΣ‎: om. PXΦ‎^l

Critical Apparatus

27 ἕκαστον‎ V

Critical Apparatus

28 ἂν γένοιτο‎ X

Critical Apparatus

29 διωρίσθω τοσοῦτον‎ PVXeyΣ‎: διωρίσθω τοῦτο‎ CSU¹: ἐπὶ τοσοῦτον διωρίσθω‎ W

Editor’s Note

29. About these matters we shall have a later opportunity of reaching greater precision; for the present be it enough to say that, as in general there are two ways in which the notion of potentiality may be used—that in which we say a boy is capable of commanding an army, and that in which a grown man is so—so is it with the faculty of perception. Since the difference between the two has no name, but we have shown that and how they differ, we must use the words 'suffer' and 'be changed' as technical terms. The perceptive faculty is potentially such as the perceptible object is actually; it is unlike the object when it is acted on, but when it has been acted on it has become, and is, like it.

Editor’s Note

29. περὶ … τούτων‎. Simp. 125. 11 thinks that this means περὶ τοῦ πῶς τὰ καθόλου καὶ τὸ θεωρεῖν ἐϕ' ἡμῖν‎, and that the reference is to Γ‎. 4, 5. Soph. 69. 38 thinks that the reference is to the discussion of the practical intellect in Γ‎. 7 and 10. Philop. 308. 20 thinks that the reference is to both these things. Sophonias' interpretation, at least, must be wrong, since the theoretical intellect is as much concerned with sensible objects as the practical intellect. It may be doubted whether A. has any particular passage in mind; he perhaps never gave the elucidation he intends to give.

Critical Apparatus

30 εἴποιμεν‎ CPVeΣ‎: εἴπωμεν‎ SUX

Editor’s Note

32–418^a1. οὕτως‎ … αἰσθητικόν‎. Alex. 85. 25, Them. 56. 31, Phil. 308. 25, and Simp. 125. 20 think this means that τὸ αἰσθητικόν‎ must be understood in the second of the senses mentioned in 417^b31–32. But of course it can be understood in either of these; it is in the next sentence that A. says that πάσχειν‎ and ἀλλοιοῦσθαι‎ are to be used as correct or technical terms not for the acquisition at birth (417^b17) of the faculty of perception, but for the passage from the mere possession of the faculty to the use of it on a particular occasion.

Critical Apparatus

418^a2 χρῆσθαι‎ PUVWeΣ‎Φ‎^l: +δʼ‎ C¹SXy

τῷ‎ PUVXyΣ‎Φ‎^l: τὸ‎ C¹ESW¹

Critical Apparatus

3 δʼ‎ PUVWXyΣ‎Φ‎^l: om. C¹Se

Critical Apparatus

4 ἤδη+ὡς‎ S

Editor’s Note

418^a4. καθάπερ εἴρηται‎, i.e. in 417^a18–20.

Critical Apparatus

5 πάσχει‎ CUeΣ‎Φ‎^l: πάσχον‎ PΘ‎

ὄν‎ CUVXeΣ‎Φ‎^l: om. PSΘ‎

Editor’s Note

418^a7. We must first discuss, sense by sense, the objects of sensation. There are three types of sensible object, two perceived per se and one incidentally. Of the two, one is confined to a single sense, one is common to all the senses. (1) By the former I mean that which cannot be perceived by another sense, and about which error is impossible, e.g. colour, sound, flavour, which are proper to sight, hearing, taste, while touch perceives several differences; but each sense judges of these objects, and makes no mistake about their being respectively colour or sound, but only about what or where the coloured or sounding object is. (2) The common objects of sense are movement and rest, number, shape, size; e.g. a particular movement is perceived both by touch and by sight. (3) By an incidental object of perception is meant such a fact as that the white object before us is the son of Diares; we perceive this per accidens because it is incidental to the white object which we perceive; that is why the perceiver is in this case not modified by the object of perception as such. Of the per se objects of perception, those proper to a particular sense, those to which the essential nature of each sense is relative, are perceptible in the primary way.

Editor’s Note

418^a7. Λεκτέον‎ … πρῶτον‎. This is the preface to the study of the five senses in chs. 7–11. But before he comes to them, A. draws a distinction between the objects of the five senses and (a) the common sensibles and (b) the incidental sensibles.

Critical Apparatus

8 ὧν] ὡς‎ S: οἷον‎ y

δυοῖν‎ SUX

Editor’s Note

8–9. λέγεται … συμβεβηκός‎. Of the three types of object of sense-perception, τὰ ἴδια‎ are dealt with in ll. 11–17, τὰ κοινά‎ in ll. 17–20, τὰ κατὰ σνμβεβηκός‎ in ll. 20–24. For a fuller account of the doctrine of κοινὴ αἴσθησις‎ cf. Introduction, pp. 33–36.

Critical Apparatus

10 μὲν+ἓν‎ V

ἑκάστης‎+τῆς‎ Wy: om. V

Critical Apparatus

11–12 ἑτέρᾳ … ἐνδέχεται‎ om. P¹Σ‎

Editor’s Note

13–14. ἡ‎ … διαφοράς‎. A. specifies these in 422^b26–27. The sense of touch perceives heat and cold, solidity and fluidity, hardness and softness, etc. In 422^b27–32 A. tones down the distinction he here draws between touch and the other senses, by pointing out that the sense of sound perceives sharpness and flatness, loudness and softness, smoothness and roughness, etc., and that there are similar differences between colours. He adds, however, ibid. 32–33, that it is not clear what the single subject is that underlies the various qualities perceived by touch, as sound underlies those perceived by hearing.

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Aristotle

W. D. Ross (ed.), Aristotle: De Anima

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